spearheads very hunters who made supersharp effective weapons. next meal, until about 12,000 years ago when the great ice

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1 Archaeology is the recovery of material evidence remaining from the past. Archaeological discoveries of early Indian settlements have been made in southeastern Virginia. Unlocking Ancient Secrets An archaeologist at Jamestown, Virginia, carefully cleans a find. Do the answers to questions about our past lie buried in the dirt? About 20 years ago a Virginia farmer noticed an odd stone spear point sticking up near a sandy dune on the Nottoway River in southeastern Virginia. His find drew scientists to an amazing discovery. DIGGING UP THE PAST AT CACTUS HILL The place the farmer stumbled upon, Cactus Hill, turned out to be very special. As a team of archaeologists began digging in the sandy soil, they found stone artifacts that had been carefully made by human hands more than 15,000 years ago. Archaeologists began digging at the Cactus Hill site, about 45 miles south of Richmond, in Since then they have unearthed hundreds of stone points and blades which were used for hunting, cutting meat, and scraping hides. They believe that this is one of the oldest sites in America. Who lived there? When did they first arrive? The answers were very surprising. Words to Know Archaeology (ark-ee-ol-uh-jee) The recovery of physical artifacts such as bones, tools, and pottery from the past. Archaeologists (ark-ee-ol-uh-jists) Scientists who study human behavior and culture through the recovery and study of artifacts. THE EARLIEST AMERICANS Scientists do not agree on how or when people first came to the Western Hemisphere, but they do agree on this: the first artifacts left behind belonged to people they call Paleo-Indians or Paleo-Americans. Paleo means old. These ancient people were hunter-gatherers who moved from place to place, always chasing herds of animals, going hungry from hunt to hunt. Archaeologists dig at Cactus Hill, one of the oldest human settlements in North America. A very old Indian culture is from what is called the Clovis period. People from that culture were fine hunters who made supersharp spearheads very effective weapons. THE HUNTER-GATHERERS The Paleo-Indians had no houses, just animal skins to keep them warm and a few sturdy spears and flint knives. For thousands of years they wandered in search of their next meal, until about 12,000 years ago when the great ice age ended. The large animals that had sustained them began to die off due to climate changes, so people needed to find other sources of food. No one knows exactly how it happened, but people on all six inhabitated continents learned how to plant crops that would feed them every year. They no longer had to keep constantly moving. They could build cozy shelters from the resources found in their environments and stay in one place. They had learned how to use the Earth s resources to live a little more easily. WHAT TYPES OF RESOURCES DID THEY DEPEND ON? As people settled in one place, they learned to depend on three different kinds of resources to survive: This painting imagines North America more than 15,000 years ago. Larger animals, such as woolly mammoths (now extinct), roamed across the continent at a time when the weather was much colder. 1. NATURAL RESOURCES Things from nature, such as plants and animals American Indians fished in the rivers, hunted animals, and grew crops. Rocks were used for spear blades and shells for knives. Grass, wood, and animal skins were used for houses. 2. HUMAN RESOURCES The people who work to make goods and provide services The men and women who learned how to fish, make clothing, hunt, cook, build homes, and complete other tasks 3. CAPITAL RESOURCES Goods produced and used to help make other goods and services Indians made canoes, shelters, sleds, tools, bows, arrows, and spears from their natural resources

2 Prior to the arrival of Europeans, American Indians were dispersed across different environments in North America. Across a Continent North, south, east, and west America s first people lived, and still live, in every part of North America. Treat the Earth well: it was not given to you by your parents, it was loaned to you by your children. We do not inherit the Earth from our Ancestors, we borrow it from our children. An American Indian Proverb What do you think of when you hear the words American Indians? Do you think of teepees and bows and arrows? Do you picture feathered headdresses and canoes? The truth is, America s first people were and still are very diverse groups with hundreds of different ways of living and speaking. THE LONG WALK When and how did people first come to the Americas? Scholars are not in agreement. Most believe that the first Americans walked here over a frozen chunk of land between Asia and what is now Alaska during the end of the last ice age a period of time ending about 12,000 years ago when it was very cold and parts of the oceans began to freeze. Some archaeologists think that people may have crossed the Atlantic or Pacific Ocean to America by boat more than 15,000 years ago. Many American Indians believe that they have always been here that this is the place where they were created. HOT, COLD, WET, DRY America s first people were as different as the parts of the country where they lived. In the past, groups that lived near the oceans survived by fishing. Inland nations hunted and farmed. People in the dry Southwest learned to survive with little water, while groups in the Northeast depended on the waterways for food and transportation. In the 1400s the people who called North America home spoke at least 500 different languages. They lived in differing styles of homes, raised their families in varied ways, and had many ways of expressing their faiths. Many suffered greatly at the hands of explorers and settlers from Europe, but today some members of these tribes still live in their ancient homelands. They are an important part of American life in many areas of North America. Let s learn more about some of these peoples. 1 ALASKA 2 4 FIVE NATIONS: WHERE ARE THEY LOCATED? MEXICO CANADA MAINLAND U.S.A. INUIT Inuit people live in the Arctic what is now Alaska and northern Canada where the temperature is below freezing much of the year. KWAKIUTL The Kwakiutl homeland includes the Pacific Northwest coast. They have a rainy, mild climate LAKOTA Lakota people inhabited the Great Plains the dry interior of the U.S. which is covered with grasslands. PUEBLO Pueblo Tribes live in the Southwest (what is now New Mexico and Arizona) in desert areas with cliffs and mountains. IROQUOIS Iroquois homelands include northeastern North America. Many lived in the heavily forested Eastern Woodlands. A Kwakiutl totem. American Indian totems are large sculptures carved from giant cedar tree trunks. Kwakiutl totems showed a person s rank in the community

3 The Inuit live in a world of great beauty but face fierce and frigid weather with long, dark winters and temperatures that reach far below zero much of the year. How do they survive? Alaska s Inuit Wearing many layers is the key to survival in this frigid land. Waterproof pullovers like the one above, made from whale intestines, help keep the Inuit dry. RUSSIA About 60 miles separate Asia from Alaska ALASKA & CANADA Geography and climate affected how various American Indian groups met their basic needs. Resources influence what was produced and how it was produced. Travel north to Alaska and northern Canada and you will be in the Arctic lands of the Inuit (In-you-it), a word that means great people. They belong to a group that is sometimes known as the Eskimo an Algonquian word that refers to snowshoes. The Inuit dwell farther north than any other people on Earth and face great challenges. ARCTIC ANIMALS In the Arctic north the only way to survive was by hunting and fishing, so the Inuit developed a close relationship with the creatures in their world. Alaskan husky and malamute dogs helped them pull heavy sleds over long distances as the Inuit hunted walrus, seal, and caribou for both fur and food. Their deep spiritual beliefs revolved around each animal, and all were considered sacred. LIVING TO SURVIVE To stay warm in the bitter cold, men and women dressed alike, with the exception of fur baby carriers for Inuit moms. In the summer, shirts of sealskin fur were worn over sealskin pants that were tucked into boots. The extreme winters called for heavier fur, such as caribou, which is similar to reindeer. To stay dry in wet weather, the Inuit wore parkas made from the intestines of seals, whales, or sea lions. When the animal died, its guts were washed, inflated, and hung up to dry. The dried intestines become see-through strips of waterproof material that breathe. Sweat could escape from the inside while keeping the wearer nice and dry. An Inuit man carries a traditional kayak. Kayak is an Inuit word. THE CIRCLE OF LIFE Antlers, tusks, and bones from caribou, whale, and walrus were used to make sled runners, sewing needles, fishhooks, and houses. Inuit villages had sturdy houses built with frames of whale bone, logs, and layers of dried grass cut during the short, snowless summer. The Inuit treated polar bears with awe, especially while hunting them. Inuit peoples believed that the hunters took on the spirit of the bears after a hunt. To honor the animals that kept the Inuit alive, artists carved stones into animal shapes. Today art collectors prize these lovely sculptures. Whale bones were used to build frames for Inuit homes which were then covered with grass WHALE TALES and animal skins. One of the most important parts of Inuit village life was the whale hunt. For 2,000 years the Inuits harpooned whales using poisoned darts a practice that ended only recently. Whalers dipped the sharp stone tips of their harpoons in poison made from a special native plant. When the whale was struck, the poison spread and paralyzed it so it could not swim. The Inuit used kayaks and umiaks (open skin-covered boats) to hunt. In the winter they traveled by dogsled from their permanent coastal winter villages to reach the whales. One whale could feed a whole community for many months. 34 A whale surfaces in the icy Arctic waters. 35

4 36 A modern day Kwakiutl spears a salmon. These fish can weigh upwards of 30 pounds! The lands of the Kwakiutl are near Washington state, but most live in Canada. C A N A D A A lush land at the sea s edge filled their every need. The Kwakiutl of the Pacific If you could walk into a Kwakiutl village 600 years ago, before Columbus, you would find a street with wooden bungalows neatly lined up, facing the sea. Tall, carved poles called totems, with colorful bird-like creatures, marked each village. Unlike the Inuit, whose search for food took a great deal of time, the Kwakiutl had forests full of deer and moose. Fish, especially huge salmon, were easy to catch. Women gathered shellfish at low tide and plucked the wild berries that grew in many places. Tall cedar trees provided plenty of wood to build houses and large canoes. The Kwakiutl also made clothes from cedar bark. The bark was peeled off trees, soaked in salt water to soften it, cut into thin strips, and then used to weave hats and coats that kept them comfy and dry in the very rainy weather that is common in the Pacific Northwest. SO MUCH TO EAT There is a group of islands on the Pacific Northwest coast of the United States and Canada, where the temperature is pleasant much of the year. Here the Pacific Ocean stays at a nearly constant 50 degrees Fahrenheit, and ocean breezes keep the area mild. Even in winter the temperature does not often drop below freezing, although it often is very rainy. This has been the home of the Kwakiutl (Kwa-kee-oot-l) Indians for the last 9,000 years. THE PERFECT PLACE Imagine a big party where the hosts give all the guests really great presents. The Kwakiutl loved celebrations and would have a potlatch to observe major life events such as weddings and births. Gift giving was at the heart of each potlatch almost a contest to see who could give the biggest, most valuable things away. Giving generously meant you were rich and of high class. Wealth and status were very important to the Kwakiutl. What sorts of things did they give one another? Blankets, carved cedar boxes, fish, and canoes were useful things to receive. But a real status symbol was a copper, a large slab of copper that was carved and decorated, then proudly carried around. There was more than just gift giving and feasting. There were wonderful dance performances by masked dancers, which told of the ways of the ancient ones. Celebrations could last for several days with feasting, dramatic plays, dancing, and the best part of all lots of gift giving. A GIFT FOR YOU The proud owner of a copper would carry it during ceremonies. Kwakiutl canoes were carved out of enormous cedar tree trunks and then beautifully decorated. These people are going to a big celebration, led by a man dressed as a giant bird. 37

5 Millions of buffalo roamed the dry grasslands of the Great Plains, and life for the Lakota people was a never-ending adventure. The Lakota: Life on the Plains The Plains Indians were gifted artists. Almost everything they made was painted or beaded in colorful geometric patterns. THE FRIENDS The interior of the United States is home to the Great Plains, a region which is covered by dry grasslands. With few trees and extreme weather, life on the Great Plains was very different from Alaska or the Pacific regions, and the people who lived here faced many challenges. One of the biggest groups here was the Lakota (La-koh-tuh), which means allies or friends. LIFE ON THE GREAT PLAINS The Lakota weren t the only people living in the Great Plains. There were Cheyenne, Arapaho, Blackfeet, Comanche, and Pawnee as well. All had many things in common, but one of the biggest was the importance of the buffalo. The Plains Indians depended on these shaggy beasts for almost everything. Buffalo meat could be dried and made into jerky, which kept for long periods of time without spoiling. Buffalo hides were used to make clothing, shields, and teepee sides. Sinew, the part that connects bone to muscle, and other muscles were used to make bowstrings and sewing thread. Bones were used to make tools as well as runners for dog sleds for winter travel over snow. Horns were turned into cups, bowls, and spoons. No part went to waste. A herd of buffalo snack on tasty grass. Plains Indians often carried their things in backpacks. Buffalo hides were cut into big rectangles and the skins made waterproof by coating them with a paste of boiled beaver tail. Belongings were put in the middle and the whole thing was folded and tightly tied. THE HUNT IS ON! Hunting was the heart of Lakota life. Buffalo, elk, and antelope meant survival. How do you capture a huge buffalo? One way the Lakota did it was by surrounding a herd and then frightening the animals so they would stampede over the edges of cliffs where other hunters waited at the bottom to kill the stunned beasts. The Lakota were also fantastic bowmen and could unleash dozens of arrows in a minute or two. With buffalo plentiful year-round, hunger was rarely a problem. Men in wolf disguises scared the buffalo and made them stampede into waiting traps. A MOVEABLE FEAST In early spring, many Lakota Indians moved closer to rivers and streams fed by melting snow. They trapped fish in newly flowing streams, and as the weather grew hot they moved on to their summer camps. Here some groups moved into long, multi-family barkhouses. Women worked in the fields, planting, tending, and harvesting corn, while the men went off to hunt. In the fall some Lakota moved closer to lakes where wild rice grew, to pluck the useful grains. Women dug up breadroot and starchy tubers such as the potato-like arrowroot, while the men fished and caught ducks and other fowl. As the bitter cold winters blew in, folks loaded up their travois (trav-wah) sturdy A-shaped sleds and headed to small winter camps where the buffalo herds were large enough to sustain each small family. They stayed warm inside their cozy teepees until spring arrived once more. Teepees were made of wood poles, stakes, pins, and buffalo hide covers. They could be put up quickly and easily taken apart and moved. They were cool in the summer heat and cozy in freezing cold weather. These replicas are in South Dakota. All of Creation is related. And the hurt of one is the hurt of all. And the honor of one is the honor of all. And whatever we do affects everything in the universe. WHITE BUFFALO CALF WOMAN THE GREAT SPIRIT The Lakota peoples had a complex religion. Prayer and purification (pyur-if-uh-kay-shun) were a big part of Plains life. Purification was the sweating out of bad spirits from the body. This was done in a sweat lodge. Outside a small domed tent, made from many layers of animal skin, rocks were heated in a fire. The super-hot rocks were carried inside the tent and tossed into water to make great clouds of steam, which causes a lot of perspiration

6 The Pueblo people made beautiful pots from adobe and wove intricately patterned baskets. They carved spirit dolls called kachinas from cottonwood trees and used them to teach youngsters lessons about right and wrong, faith, and the great gifts of nature. Gathered in kivas special round rooms used for ceremonies they quietly lifted their voices in worship and prayer, grateful for the bounty of their lives. ART AND FAITH Villagers watch a religious ceremony 40 Deserts stretch as far as the eye can see, and mountains rise up like thick fingers. Here a vibrant civilization grew. The Pueblo of the Southwest Corn was at the heart of Pueblo life, and farmers knew how to grow plants with very little water. For much of the day, the women bent over stone slabs, grinding corn into flour. Beans soaked in large jars and were then cooked by dropping hot rocks into them. There weren't many animals to hunt, so when one was killed it was always shared with the entire village. People depended on one another, and there was a close sense of community. LIFE IN THE DESERT Pueblo is a Spanish word that means village. When the first Spanish explorers made their way into the American Southwest, in what is now present-day New Mexico and Arizona, they were stunned to see large multi-story terraced buildings some built into the sides of steep cliffs. These were the homes of the Tewa, the Hopi, the Zuni, and other people of the Pueblo tribes. Many had descended from ancestral Pueblo people who had built great cities in the warm deserts of the Southwest. Their homes were made from adobe (uh-doh-bee) clay bricks that had baked rock hard in the hot sun. IN THE SHELTER OF THE MOUNTAINS Taos Pueblo in New Mexico is still lived in today. It was built about 1,000 years ago. Today many Pueblo Indians still live largely traditional lives in the American Southwest. They still farm the land, weave baskets, make beautiful rugs, and craft fine pottery and silver jewelry. They live alongside the Navajo Nation, which has much in common with Pueblo ways. Their lands extend into the states of Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. PUEBLO LANDS AND NEIGHBORS This ancient Pueblo town was built into the side of a huge cliff in Colorado. Enemies would first have to scale the side of a mountain to reach it. Chaco Canyon s ruined kivas 41 Around 850 the ancestral Pueblo people began building a large city in a place we now call Chaco Canyon, in modern-day New Mexico. This was most likely their capital city and center of trade. They kept building for the next 250 years, and today thousands of separate sites have been found in the region. Hundreds of miles of road fanned out, linking Chaco Canyon with other Pueblo towns. What happened to this ancient Pueblo city? Climate changes in the 1200s, which led to long periods without rain, may have forced the people out. A MYSTERY IN CHACO CANYON An artist s drawing shows what Chaco Canyon may have looked like.

7 Vast forests, thousands of lakes, large bays, wide rivers, and a great ocean shore lay at the heart of life in a woodland paradise. The Iroquois of the Eastern Woodlands An Iroquois village with many longhouses and canoes Special shell beads made from a rare clam were used to make wampum, which was used for both money and storytelling. SIX, UNITED The United States was formed because we are stronger together than apart. The Iroquois (Ear-akwoy) a group of Indian nations that joined together to bring peace to their lands came up with the idea long before the United States became a nation. The original homeland of the Iroquois was in upstate New York, but they gained control of the areas around Lake Ontario into eastern Canada a heavily forested area that was part of the Eastern Woodlands. The Iroquois nation was formed by five tribes that joined together: Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca. Later a sixth, the Tuscarora, joined. Together they became known by their enemies as the Iroquois the rattlesnakes, but the six tribes called themselves the Haudenosaunee (How-den-uh-saw-nee) People of the Longhouse. LIFE IN A LONGHOUSE Because there were many trees in their regions, the Iroquois used lumber to build their homes. Their longhouses averaged about 80 feet long about the length of two school buses parked end to end. Longhouses had very high ceilings about twice as high as most modern-day ceilings. Animal skin doors kept the houses cozy and dry. At the outskirts of some villages, the Iroquois built tall palisades a high fence of logs that kept wild animals out and protected the townspeople from enemy attacks. Sturdy birchbark canoes were used to travel from village to village. THE SEASONS RICHES In early spring, the Iroquois tapped maple trees and collected the sticky sap to boil down for maple syrup. Warmer spring days saw women busily planting the Three Sisters corn, beans, and squash that grow in perfect harmony together. Summer was spent tending the fast-growing crops, while the men fished and hunted. Autumn was the busiest season as the whole village joined in to harvest plants, gather fruits, and store foods for the long winter months. PEACE AND PROSPERITY Long before any European settlers came to America s shores, the Iroquois created the Great Law of Peace. Legends tell of an amazing man named Dekanawidah (Duh-con-a-wee-duh) who lived in the late 1500s. He visited his five neighbor tribes and convinced them to join together in peace. The Great Law of Peace explained how to settle disputes. It set up a society that respected the chiefs but also had ways to take away their powers if they behaved badly. Women had rights in the Iroquois nation too. They chose the chiefs. Life was good. FATE OF A PEOPLE The Great Law of Peace brought prosperity to the Iroquois for hundreds of years, but all that changed when Europeans arrived. The Iroquois became deeply involved in America s story, from the first colonial outposts to the struggles of our nation through war and change. The Iroquois people came close to being destroyed, but proudly survive today and still follow their traditions. EYEWITNESS TO HISTORY This is how Dekanawidah began explaining his Great Law of Peace. His speech has been handed down from generation to generation. I am Dekanawidah and with the Five Nations Confederate Chiefs I plant the Tree of Great Peace. I plant it in your territory in the territory of you who are Firekeepers. I name the tree the Tree of the Great Long Leaves. Under the shade of this Tree of the Great Peace we spread the soft white feathery down of the globe thistle as seats for you and your cousin Chiefs. We place you upon those seats, spread soft with the feathery down of the globe thistle, there beneath the shade of the spreading branches of the Tree of Peace. There shall you sit and watch the Council Fire of the Confederacy of the Five Nations, and all the affairs of the Five Nations shall be transacted at this place before you by the Confederate Chiefs of the Five Nations. LACROSSE: WAR S LITTLE BROTHER The game of lacrosse was created by the Indians of the Northeast to sharpen their fighting skills. Entire towns played against one another. Games lasted for days and the playing field often stretched for miles