Marshall High School Mr. Cline Western Civilization I: Ancient Foundations Unit One BC. What is Civilization?

Transcription

1 Marshall High School Mr. Cline Western Civilization I: Ancient Foundations Unit One BC What is Civilization?

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3 * In the Beginning. In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. 2 Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters. 3 And God said, Let there be light, and there was light. 4 God saw that the light was good, and he separated the light from the darkness. 5 God called the light day, and the darkness he called night. And there was evening, and there was morning the first day. 6 And God said, Let there be a vault between the waters to separate water from water. 7 So God made the vault and separated the water under the vault from the water above it. And it was so. 8 God called the vault sky. And there was evening, and there was morning the second day. 9 And God said, Let the water under the sky be gathered to one place, and let dry ground appear. And it was so. 10 God called the dry ground land, and the gathered waters he called seas. And God saw that it was good. 11 Then God said, Let the land produce vegetation: seed-bearing plants and trees on the land that bear fruit with seed in it, according to their various kinds. And it was so. 12 The land produced vegetation: plants bearing seed according to their kinds and trees bearing fruit with seed in it according to their kinds. And God saw that it was good. 13 And there was evening, and there was morning the third day. 14 And God said, Let there be lights in the vault of the sky to separate the day from the night, and let them serve as signs to mark sacred times, and days and years, 15 and let them be lights in the vault of the sky to give light on the earth. And it was so. 16 God made two great lights the greater light to govern the day and the lesser light to govern the night. He also made the stars. 17 God set them in the vault of the sky to give light on the earth, 18 to govern the day and the night, and to separate light from darkness. And God saw that it was good. 19 And there was evening, and there was morning the fourth day. 20 And God said, Let the water teem with living creatures, and let birds fly above the earth across the vault of the sky. 21 So God created the great creatures of the sea and every living thing with which the water teems and that moves about in it, according to their kinds, and every winged bird according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. 22 God blessed them and said, Be fruitful and increase in number and fill the water in the seas, and let the birds increase on the earth. 23 And there was evening, and there was morning the fifth day. 24 And God said, Let the land produce living creatures according to their kinds: the livestock, the creatures that move along the ground, and the wild animals, each according to its kind. And it was so. 25 God made the wild animals according to their kinds, the livestock according to their kinds, and all the creatures that move along the ground according to their kinds. And God saw that it was good. 26 Then God said, Let us make mankind in our image, in our likeness, so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the livestock and all the wild animals, [a] and over all the creatures that move along the ground.

4 * The preponderance of evidence The evidence supporting evolution includes: Fossil finds that looked for changes in cranial size, distinct changes in canine teeth, and the shape of the pelvis Changes in cranial size indicate growth, and roundness of the brain, which demonstrate development into the large, rounded brain of modern humans, and reduce brow ridges evident in other apes Changes in canine teeth from long and sharp to more squared off demonstrate a change from ancestral ape to modern man, and most likely came about as a change in sexual dimorphism that allowed for men to engage in less regular fighting over mating rights Other changes in sexual dimoprhism include hidden year long estrus in females and no visible signs of fertility, and size difference between males and females.

5 * The preponderance of evidence The evidence supporting evolution includes: Fossil finds that looked for changes in cranial size, distinct changes in canine teeth, and the shape of the pelvis Pelvis shape difference between ape and man would be wider pelvises in females to allow for human birth with the larger human head, and a tilting of the pelvis that would indicate bipedalism Other changes in the fossil record that indicate lineage include an increased importance on vision rather than smell indicated by larger ocular orbits; a smaller gut indicated by less of a barrel shape in the rib cage; development of a chin (only found in Homo sapiens) that enabled modern humans to make minute movements of the jaw and lips that aided in the facilitation of speech, as well did the development of a descended larynx. And several other features. Ape Skeletons

6 * The preponderance of evidence The evidence supporting evolution includes: DNA evidence of mutation and similarity between apes and man DNA investigation began with the study of blood serum albumin in apes, chimpanzees and humans. These tests indicated that immunology reactions to various factors showed a great deal of similarity between the three, indicating relationship. The strength of each reaction could be expressed by the difference in the number of amino acids, known as immunological difference. By comparing these difference with the evidence in the fossil record they could estimate when the changes had occurred and therefore determine when we had separated from both apes and chimpanzees

7 * The preponderance of evidence The evidence supporting evolution includes: DNA evidence of mutation and similarity between apes and man The difference in amino acids remained constant, particularly in DNA, and using a molecular clock method that determined at what temperature DNA would fall apart, one could determine approximately when one set of DNA had departed from another set. It could not give an exact age, only a time frame of separation (these separated 20,000 years from each other) and therefore require collaborating evidence in the fossil record to determine dates.

8 The earliest hominid (great ape) discovered is the Ardipithecus ramidus, supposed to have lived roughly 4.4 million years ago. They stood roughly 4 feet tall, and most likely resided in a forest like environment.

9 The next earliest hominid (great ape) discovered is the Australopithecus anamensis, supposed to have lived roughly 3.9 million years ago. While it showed advanced bipedal features, its skull still resembled that of the great apes

10 The next earliest hominid (great ape) discovered is the Australopithecus afarensis, supposed to have lived roughly 3.5 million years ago. It was between 3 6 and 5 tall and fully bipedal The most famous fossil find of early hominids is Lucy, who fell into this family

11 The next earliest hominid (great ape) discovered is the Australopithecus africanus, supposed to have lived roughly 3 million years ago. It was between 3 6 and 5 tall and fully bipedal Compared afarensis, africanus was slightly larger in body size. Its brain size was also slightly larger, ranging up to 500 cc, but still not advanced enough for speech. This hominid was a herbivore and ate tough, hard to chew, plants. The shape of the jaw was now like the human.

12 The next earliest hominid (great ape) discovered is the Australopithecus aethiopicus, supposed to have lived roughly 2 million years ago. This hominid ate a rough and hard to chew diet. He had huge molars and jaws and a large sagittal crest. A sagittal crest is a bony ridge on the skull extending from the forehead to the back of the head. Massive chewing muscles were anchored to this crest. Brain sizes were still about 500cc, with no indication of speech functions.

13 The next earliest hominid (great ape) discovered is the Australopithecus robustus, supposed to have lived roughly 1.75 million years ago. It had a body similar to that of africanus, but a larger and more massive skull and teeth. Its huge face was flat and with no forehead. It had large brow ridges and a sagittal crest. Brain size was up to 525cc with no indication of speech capability.

14 The next earliest hominid (great ape) discovered is the Australopithecus boisei, supposed to have lived roughly 1.1 million years ago. It was quite similar to robustus, but with an even more massive face. It had huge molars, the larger measuring 0.9 inches across. The brain size was about the same as robustus. Some authorities believe that robustus and boisei are variants of the same species.

15 The next earliest hominid (great ape) discovered is the beginning of that race of creatures who are closest to man, and not ape, and thus whose genus name begins with the descriptor of Homo, which is Greek for man. This is Homo Habilis. Homo Habilis (Greek for Handy Man ) was called this because tools were found with his fossil remains. This species existed between 2.4 and 1.5 million years ago. The brain size in earlier fossil specimens was about 500cc but rose to 800cc toward the end of the species life period. The species brain shape shows evidence that some speech had developed. Habilis was about 5' tall and weighed about 100 pounds. Some scientists believe that habilis is not a separate species and should be carried either as a later Australopithecine or an early Homo erectus. It is possible that early examples are in one species group and later examples in the other.

16 The next earliest Homo Genus discovered was Homo Erectus (Greek for upright man.) He lived between 1.8 million and 300,000 years ago. It was a successful species for a million and a half years. Early examples had a 900cc brain size on the average. The brain grew steadily during its reign. Toward the end its brain was almost the same size as modern man, at about 1200cc. The species definitely had speech. Erectus developed tools, weapons and fire and learned to cook his food. He traveled out of Africa into China and Southeast Asia and developed clothing for northern climates. He turned to hunting for his food. Only his head and face differed from modern man. Like Habilis, the face had massive jaws with huge molars, no chin, thick brow ridges, and a long low skull. Though proportioned the same, he was sturdier in build and much stronger than the modern human.

17 The next earliest Homo Genus discovered was Homo Heidelbergensis(Greek for man from Heidelberg.) He provided the bridge between erectus and Homo Sapiens during the period 200,000 to 500,000 years ago. Many skulls have been found with features intermediate between the two. Brain averaged about 1200cc and speech was indicated. Skulls are more rounded and with smaller features. Molars and brow ridges are smaller. The skeleton shows a stronger build than modern human but was well proportioned. * Homo Heidelbergensis has variously been known as Cro- Magnon Man, and Java man, and Peking Man as his remains have been discovered throughout Europe, Asia, and the southeast Asian islands, particularly Indonesia.

18 The next earliest Homo Genus discovered was Homo Nenandertalensis(Greek for man from Neandertal.) He lived in Europe and the Mideast between 150,000 and 35,000 years ago. Neandertals coexisted with Heidelbergensis, and early Sapiens. It is not known whether he was of the same species and disappeared into the Sapiens gene pool or he may have been crowded out of existence (killed off) by the Sapiens. recent DNA studies have indicated that the Neandertal was an entirely different species and did not merge into the Sapiens gene pool. Though within the last year scientists mapping the Neandertal genome have claimed that they did interbreed with non African Sapiens, and so a portion of their genome survives in modern humans. Brain sizes averaged larger than modern man at about 1450cc but the head was shaped differently, being longer and lower than modern man. His nose was large and was different from modern man in structure. He was a massive man at about 5'6" tall with an extremely heavy skeleton that showed attachments for massive muscles. He was far stronger than modern man. His jaw was massive and he had a receding forehead, like erectus.

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20 Us. Homo Sapiens Sapiens, or in Latin, Wise Man.

21 The most widely accepted theory on the dispersal of Homo Sapiens throughout the world is known as the Out of Africa Theory The Out of Africa theory states that a small group of modern humans migrated out of Africa and into the Middle East, and that their descendants went on to populate the Earth Thus, modern humans evolved in Africa, around 150,000 to 200,000 years ago, and migrated from there around 60,000 to 125,000 years ago This theory was first proposed by Charles Darwin in his book The Descent of Man, however it was only speculation with no other evidence except guesses based on bone structure and other physical similarities between archaeological finds Beginning in the 1980 s however, DNA evidence has arisen that supports this theory above all others

22 DNA evidence supporting Out of Africa Mitochondrial DNA Mitochondrial DNA is found in the mitochondria (the powerhouse) of cells, and is inherited directly from the mother Because this DNA sits outside of the nucleus, it has a tendency to mutate much quicker than other DNA strands (approximately once every 3,500 years), and so mutations can be plotted over short spans of time By comparing human mitochondrial DNA to Chimpanzees, it can be observed that there is much less diversity between the two, and thus we are the younger of the two species. Then, assuming that Homo Erectus and Neandertals are extinct, we can chart difference in human mitochondrial DNA to arrive at the conclusion that there was one lucky woman who was the matrilineal ancestor of us all

23 DNA evidence supporting Out of Africa Mitochondrial DNA Each significant mutation found in specific groups, is known as a Haplogroup. So, for example a group that settled in China would carry a different mutation than a group that settled in Europe, or would not carry a later mutation that Europeans do Using these methods, author Brian Sykes has narrowed down the matrilineal descendant of Europe into 7 to 12 women, based on geographic origin, in his book The Seven Daughters of Eve

24 DNA evidence supporting Out of Africa Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroup U (Ursula) is said to be the mother of groups of people from India to the Caucus mountains in Russia Haplogroup X (Xenia) is said to be the mother of a small portion of humans in Europe with no distinct geographic location, but pockets ranging from the Druze community in Israel, to the Shetland and Orkney Islands of Scotland. It is also very heavy in Native Americans. Haplogroup H (Helena) is said to be the mother of South Western Europe showing particularly in populations of south western France, Spain and Portugal

25 DNA evidence supporting Out of Africa Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroup V (Velda) is said to be the mother of groups of people from northern Scandinavia and southern Spain Haplogroup T (Tara) is said to be the mother of groups of people from northern Italy to the eastern Baltic Sea Haplogroup K (Katherine) is said to be the mother of groups of people from Belgium, Austria and Georgia Haplogroup J (Jasmine) shows up in 2 to 12% of all Europeans from Ireland to Italy

26 DNA evidence supporting Out of Africa Y Chromosome DNA Y Chromosomal DNA is found in the sex determinant cells of males, and is inherited directly from the father to the son Y Chromosomal Adam probably lived approximately 142,000 years ago in central to west Africa The Y Chromosome has still not been fully documented, and so depending on it to trace human migration is much less sure than mitochondrial DNA traces, but what we have so far does seem to match up with migration patterns learned from matrilineal descendant