FINAL TECHNICAL REPORT-Wild edible mushrooms from Kerala forests-a source of food & income

Transcription

1 1

2 2 CONTENTS TECHNICAL DETAILS 03 RESEARCH REPORT ABSTRACT 04 INTRODUCTION 05 OBJECTIVES 05 METHODOLOGY 08 LIST OF EDIBLE MUSHROOMS 24 DETAILED ACCOUNT OF EDIBLE MUSHROOMS 28 TRAINING 106 VALUE ADDITION 107 RESULTS & CONCLUSION 109 MUSHROOM RECIPES 112 REFERENCES 121 PUBLICATIONS 123 PLATES

3 3 Part-I: Technical Details Title of the project Name and address of Principal Investigator Name and address of Co-Investigator : WILD EDIBLE MUSHROOMS FROM KERALA FORESTS-A SOURCE OF FOOD & INCOME : Dr. K.B. Vrinda, Scientist Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden & Research Institute, Palode Thiruvananthapuram Ph.(Off.) Fax : Dr. C. K. Pradeep, Scientist Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden & Research Institute, Palode, Thiruvananthapuram Ph.(Off.) Fax Organization : Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden & Research Institute, Palode Thiruvananthapuram Code No. : G.O.(M.S) No. 16/11/Plg. dated, Period : Financial details Total outlayw : Rs.5,63,000/- Amount released : Rs. 5,63,000/- Expenditure as on (31 March 2014) : Rs. 5,63,000/- Staff sanctioned Jr. Research Fellow : One

4 4 Abstract Mushrooms can contribute to overcome, to some extent, the world s hunger problems by providing variety of delicious, healthy, natural food at the expense of only of the time required to collect them. In Kerala there are nearly a hundred other wild mushroom species that are known to be edible, plus thousands of species that are either poisonous, inedible, or of unknown edibility. In the selection of mushrooms to eat, a great caution should be taken because mushrooms poisoning is not uncommon now in Kerala. The study aimed not only at identifying the common wild edible mushrooms of Kerala based on local and scientific knowledge but also focused at collection, identification and sustainable utilization for the lesser known wild edible mushrooms of Kerala. To know several different kinds of edible mushrooms, which occur in greater or less quantity through the different seasons, would enable those interested in these fungi to provide a palatable food at the expense of only the time required to collect them. Mushrooms may never play as big a dietary role in India, especially in Kerala, as they do in other parts of the world, but for those who enjoy trying different kinds of food, the fungi kingdom hold a vast array of gastronomic delights. The study aimed at collecting and documenting the common and lesser known wild edible mushrooms of Kerala forests so that they can be distinguished easily by the local people who collect them for food. The study also aimed at bringing out certain guidelines for safe foraging so that common man interested in gathering wild mushrooms for food can follow these guidelines to reduce the risk of poisoning. This will also help people to overcome suspicions about wild mushrooms. Large quantities of these natural resources, so far not properly managed, can thus be safely gathered and utilized by the local people without ill effects.

5 5 Introduction The fleshy fungi, particularly the mushrooms, are of great interest for a variety of reasons. The possibility of using them as food Is it edible or poisonous? - is the first concern of many people. For others, the diversity of form and vivid colours are a satisfaction and a delight. Each group of organisms has its unique appeal, but in case of fungi, especially mushrooms and fleshy ones are an unusually diverse and colourful group with distinct appeal to those with artistic, scientific, photographic and culinary interests. There is a challenge in trying to find some kind of fleshy fungi during their brief season, when they suddenly appear and almost as suddenly disappear. Mushrooms may reappear each year again and again producing fruiting bodies. The mysteries of poisons and hallucinogens have created a mushroom folklore containing truths, half truths and superstitions. Wild edible forest mushrooms are among the special forest products and are of great food and nutritional value. On a dry weight basis mushrooms have been observed to contain percent of crude protein, 3-28 percent of carbohydrates and a wide range of both macro- and micro- elements besides certain vitamins. The use of wild mushrooms for food in all probability began with the prehistoric man. During the long period in which he existed as a hunter gatherer, the fungi of the forest might have served as an important source of nourishment. When collecting wild mushrooms for food, one has to remember that the most common source of information about their edibility has been trial and error; people got sick or died from eating poisonous specimens. Information and evaluations of fleshy fungi as edible, suspect, not recommended and poisonous have accumulated with time. One of the earliest documentations of the use of wild mushrooms as food dates back to the Greek and Roman cultures of about 400 BC. Classical Roman literature contains many references of mycophagy. Ancient Romans considered some

6 6 species to be such wonderful delicacies that they dubbed them food for the gods. One edible species is still commonly called Caesar s mushroom. Mushrooms are collected for food and generate income in more than 80 countries. Mushrooms occur in flushes during the rainy season from June to November in the forests of Kerala and several mushroom species are harvested by the local tribes. Although many indigenous communities have substantial knowledge on the sites and season for the harvest of certain mushrooms, there is an apparent dearth of information on the productivity of mushrooms occurring in natural forests. Many mushrooms that are economically important grow only in some particular ecological habitat under a narrow range of ecological conditions and microclimate and cannot be cultivated under artificial conditions. Since most of the mushrooms occur in ectomycorrhizal association with some specific trees, forest depletion can have significant impact on mushroom yield. Mushrooms can contribute to overcome to some extent the world s hunger problems by providing variety of delicious, healthy, natural food at the expense of only of the time required to collect them. The scope of this study was not limited to common, easily identified species of mushrooms. In Kerala there are nearly a hundred other wild mushroom species that are known to be edible, plus thousands of species that are either poisonous, inedible, or of unknown edibility. In the selection of mushrooms to eat a great caution should be taken because mushrooms poisoning is not uncommon now in Kerala. The search for a simple test to tell if a mushroom is edible continues. The old myths of cooking with a silver coin or spoon, and the Laotian belief that harmful mushrooms make rice turn red have not been substantiated. For a few years, mycologists believed they could detect a poisonous chemical compound found in mushrooms such as in Amanita phalloides, but subsequent testing of many harmless species produced the same reaction, rendering the test meaningless.

7 7 War, poverty, and cultural customs have forced the people of many countries to survive on wild foods for certain periods of time. The Russians claim that forest mushrooms spelled the difference between life and death during their many wars when large numbers of people were forced to leave their cities. Wild mushrooms are a permanent part of the cuisine of many countries. People who collect as their forefathers did seldom become ill, because they limit their collections to a small number of well known fungi. Toxic mushrooms may superficially resemble edible ones. These are called "look-alikes." Only by examining specimens carefully with regard to physical details one can distinguish between edible and poisonous wild mushrooms. Our study aimed not only at identifying the common wild edible mushrooms of Kerala based on local and scientific knowledge but also focused at collection, identification and sustainable utilization for the lesser known wild edible mushrooms of Kerala. To know several different kinds of edible mushrooms, which occur in greater or less quantity through the different seasons, would enable those interested in these fungi to provide a palatable food at the expense of only the time required to collect them. This formed the backdrop of our study. Mushrooms may never play as big a dietary role in India, especially in Kerala, as they do in other parts of the world, but for those who enjoy trying different kinds of food, the fungi kingdom hold a vast array of gastronomic delights. For many, wild mushrooms will be a whole new kind of food and with a few exceptions- they won t be found in the produce section of the super market. They re free, lying scattered across the landscape. What has to be done is to find them and enjoy them. Objectives Main objective of the programme was Collection, identification preservation and value addition of the lesser known wild edible mushrooms of Kerala

8 8 Methodology 1. Collection and identification of wild edible mushrooms Survey and collection of common edible mushrooms from different parts of Kerala was conducted during the years This was done during the monsoon periods. Fresh fruiting bodies were collected from different forest areas of Kerala. The most intensive field work was carried out in Thiruvananthapuram and Wayanad Districts. In the field, mature and well developed fruit bodies were collected carefully without disturbing the underground stipe base, which is a crucial identification feature. Fruit bodies of different stages of development were collected in order to study the range of characters. Various ecological parameters were recorded along with other field data such as type of forest, habit, habitat, locality etc. Well developed fruit bodies were photographed. The collections were then wrapped in ready cut newspapers and brought to the laboratory or camping sites for further study. Macro characters of all the collections were thoroughly observed and noted down in the data book. Habit sketches of the specimens collected were drawn in the data book. Some simple macro-chemical tests were also conducted. Spore prints were taken on microscopic slides and the colour was observed in day light and was dried and stored for future reference. Fruit bodies were dried at o C in a hot-air oven and deposited at the Mycological herbarium of the Plant Systematics & Evolutionary Science Division of Jawaharlal Nehru Tropical Botanic Garden and Research Institute [TBGT (M)]. Fresh fruit bodies were also preserved as such in Kew spirit. Detailed microscopic analysis of various parts of the fruit body was carried out in the laboratory. For this, fresh specimens were used as far as possible. Sections were cut under a Leica stereo microscope and were mounted in water after staining with 3% Congo Red. Dried fruit bodies were used for the study after reviving them in 10% KOH. Excess

9 9 stain was removed, replaced by 3% KOH and examined under a compound microscope. Basidiospores from spore prints were studied by mounting the spores in 3% KOH. In the absence of spore deposit, spores from mature lamellae were measured. Dextrinocity and metachromatism of the spores were checked using Melzer s reagent and Cresyl Blue respectively. The range of spore sizes as well as the average spore size was calculated by measuring 20 spores. Compiling both microscopic and macroscopic characters and consulting relevant literature, the specimens were identified following standard taxonomic methodology (Singer, 1986). The collected data were published as research papers and also presented at National & International symposia. 2. Preservation Wild mushrooms fruit in flushes, reach peak quality for a short time, then vanish until the following year. Frequently, too many are collected to be consumed fresh, and since they are perishable, techniques for preserving them were devised. There are four excellent reasons for preserving mushrooms and there are five ways to preserve mushrooms for food: refrigeration, freezing, canning, pickling and drying. Each of these techniques has its own advantages and disadvantages; also techniques suitable for some kinds of mushrooms may be quite unsatisfactory for others. Therefore wild mushrooms collected during the surveys were subjected to these techniques for preservation and the most suitable methods adapted were refrigeration, pickling and drying. Mushrooms are very seasonal. Wild mushrooms are sold in the markets cyclically at the same time as they appear in their natural habitats. We must enjoy them fresh while we can. As a rule, they are most tasty when fresh. But many varieties, if carefully preserved, can be coaxed to hold on to their flavors for later use.

10 10 Mushrooms do not keep well for long. After eating and enjoying some for a few days, holding the rest increases the risk of spoiling. To make the most of the left-over mushrooms, it is wise to safely put the remainder away until your taste buds again urge you to repeat past pleasures. Transporting fresh fungi is difficult. They break and bruise easily. They do not tolerate exposure well. They may be dried, pickled, frozen, or canned. Powders are made by grinding them after drying. "Ketchups" are concocted and bottled, and sometimes the mushrooms are salted down, a brining process in which salt is layered with the mushrooms. Different forms for drying Freeze Drying: In this technology, the most superior method is vacuum freeze drying system, in which water is evaporated by sublimation from ice phase to vapour at low temperature resulting in dried product close to fresh product and quick in rehydration. The main limitation of this system is its high energy cost. Therefore it can be used for high value products like mushrooms only. Vacuum Drying: In this, heat sensitive products are dried under vacuum at low temperature. The product is superior to air-drying and sun drying. This method is widely practiced due to its fair product quality and economics. Microwave drying: This is the latest system emerging in dehydration as the product quality is superior quite similar to freeze drying. The cost of microwave drying is lower than that of freeze drying. Hot air drying: This system is simple hot air circulation over the product. Evaporation is by controlled temperature heating so that water is gently evaporated as it reaches the surface by osmosis.

11 11 Sun drying: This is an age-old traditional drying system and solar energy is utilized at low Cost. This takes the longest time and the risk of product deterioration during drying is high. Sanitary methods have been developed and in some cases solar heat are utilized by using solar cells and air is circulated in closed chambers by fan. Improvements in this system will further reduce energy cost. The Latest trends in drying technology are combination treatments of high temperature flash drying of product having high moisture, followed by closed hot air cross flow drying or vacuum drying /Microwave drying/freeze drying. Preparing, preserving and cooking wild mushrooms The use of mushrooms as food has a long and interesting history. The Romans and the Greeks explored the culinary possibilities of fungi with enthusiasm. One mushroom was so highly prized by the Romans that certain cooking pots were set aside and reserved for its exclusive preparation. It was called a boletaria, and the genus Boletus shares this common name. Wealthy Romans hired trained collectors to be certain that the mushrooms on which they dined were edible. Animals and slaves were sometimes fed samples of fungi to test their reactions. No systematic method for identifying and naming mushrooms was adopted by the Romans. Nevertheless, we believe some of the varieties we eat today are to be found in banquet menus and recipes written during Roman times. Interest in mushrooms has increased dramatically in the last few years. Food magazines offer tempting recipes for both wild and cultivated mushrooms. Restaurant menus offer variety of dishes for cultivated mushrooms. The potential market is now so great that large-scale cultivation of an increasing variety of mushrooms provides yearround pleasure for the mushroom lovers.

12 12 The search for a simple test to tell if a mushroom is edible continues. The old myths of cooking with a silver coin or spoon, and the Laotian belief that harmful mushrooms make rice turn red have not been substantiated. For a few years, mycologists believed they could detect a poisonous chemical compound found in mushrooms such as in Amanita phalloides, but subsequent testing of many harmless species produced the same reaction, rendering the test meaningless. War, poverty, and cultural customs have forced the people of many countries to survive on wild foods for certain periods of time. The Russians claim that forest mushrooms spelled the difference between life and death during their many wars when large numbers of people were forced to leave their cities. Wild mushrooms are a permanent part of the cuisine of many countries. People who collect as their forefathers did seldom become ill, because they limit their collections to a small number of well known fungi. Wild mushrooms fruit in flushes, reach peak quality for a short time, then vanish until the following year. Frequently, too many are collected to be consumed fresh, and since they are perishable, techniques for preserving them were devised. When people consider eating wild mushrooms, they always ask these three questions: "Are there tests to indicate which mushrooms are edible and which ones are not?" Answer: Unfortunately, there are no simple tests to determine which ones are safe to eat. "What's the difference between a mushroom and a toadstool?" Answer: The word "toadstool" is an indefinite term referring to poisonous mushrooms. It is not commonly used by experts or knowledgeable amateurs. "Is it edible?"

13 13 Answer: Fungi are grouped for edibility as follows: 1. Edible and choice. 2. Edible and worth collecting. 3. Harmless, but not worth collecting. 4. Disagreeable. 5. Mildly to severely irritating. 6. Poisonous to lethal. The mushrooms in which we are interested are limited to the first two groups. But we have learned to know the others so that we can delight in eating edible forms with assurance. The edibility of wild mushrooms The wild mushrooms are the only type of food in the world which offers equal doses of deliciousness or poisoning, depending on species. However, only six are lethal. The rest may be either very toxic or just mildly so, but still can produce extreme symptoms. Mushrooms and nutrition For those who are trying to control their weight, mushrooms are an ideal food. They please the palate while minimizing calories. It has been suggested that anyone interested in eating mushrooms can eat all the mushrooms they want and still lose weight, because it takes more calories to digest mushrooms than they provide. Mushrooms are truly low-calorie delights- the common cultivated Agaricus- button mushroom-has only thirty calories per one hundred grams, mostly in the form of protein. Mushrooms fat and carbohydrate levels are almost negligible, and they contain o cholesterol. These nutritional benefits become insignificant if the mushrooms are fried in butter or oil and then served with other fattening foods. Simple cooking techniques are recommended.

14 14 Preparing wild mushrooms Fresh wild mushrooms, rare seasonal treat that they are, should be treated with lots of care. Wild mushrooms keep best stored in a paper bag in the refrigerator. Mushrooms can be fried, sautéed, or stir-fried on their own and eaten as a side dish or used to top an entrée. Most people sauté wild mushrooms in butter or oil. Each choice mushroom has its own distinctive flavor, which is partially why we are so obsessed with them, so don t drown them in butter, oil or spices. Mushrooms are popular as an ingredient in salads, soups, sauces stir-fries, meat dishes, and other main dishes. Selecting Mushrooms Positive identification of wild mushrooms for eating is very essential. Each individual mushroom is to be examined very carefully to be certain it right identity. Both wild and cultivated mushrooms should be carefully checked for freshness. Brown, shiny, smelly soft spots will appear if decay has begun. Look for fragmenting gills or pore surfaces. Avoid the use of plastic bags for gathering or storing fresh mushrooms. Waxed or brown paper bags are preferred. Water condenses on the walls of plastic, making mushrooms moist or soggy. If they must be carried home from the store in plastic bags, remove them to a dry bowl as soon as possible. If the specimens are very moist, line and cover the bowl with a cloth or paper towel before refrigerating. Most mushrooms will last a week if treated this way. Testing the lesser known edible mushrooms Usually, when we decide to sample a mushroom we've never eaten before, we slice and sauté a small amount of it in butter until it is brown and soft. Then we eat a small quantity of it to evaluate the intensity and the quality of its flavor. These characteristics help us decide how it might be used in a recipe. This procedure will also alert us to any

15 15 allergic sensitivity we may have to any new foodstuffs. Any new food can cause unpleasant minor reactions. Common sense, however, dictates that one should best avoid tasting a mushroom suspected of containing amanitins. Cleaning Mushrooms As a rule, mushrooms are cleaned before use. All mushrooms require careful cleaning before eating. Cultivated mushrooms will require less cleaning than wild mushrooms because they are grown in a controlled environment. Most of the dirt will only be surface dirt and generally only require a dusting or wiping off with a damp paper towel. Wild mushrooms require a little more cleaning because of the environment they are exposed to. Start by using soft brush to brush away sand, dirt and other debris. Use a damp paper towel to wipe off anything that could not be brushed off. If the mushroom has a hollow stem or cavity, split the mushroom lengthwise and check for additional sand, dirt, and insects that may be trapped in this area and clean if necessary. After cleaning the mushroom in this manner, if there is still debris on the mushroom, rinse them with water. Place mushrooms in a colander and use gentle running water or a spray nozzle to rinse. Rub lightly with fingers if necessary to remove particles. Rinse as little as possible, drain well, and then spread out on a paper towel and pat dry immediately. Wash them with as little water as possible. Especially avoid wetting the undersides of the caps. Washing is not always the best way to clean them, as it makes them water logged and thereby reduces their flavour. If the mushrooms are in good condition, brush or wipe them with a damp cloth. Delicate flavors are lost in soaking or boiling mushrooms. Remove tough stems or trim the ends as needed. In some recipes, the stems are saved for later use.

16 16 Forest debris and soil can be often persuaded to leave the surface with the gentle brushing of a finger. Nylon mushroom brushes are available at cookware stores, but a soft toothbrush is just as effective. A 'mushroom cloth' is a specially selected piece of fabric whose abrasive properties are particularly useful for removing the outer layer (and soil) from edible mushrooms. The mushroom cloth is a generic term for any piece of clean fabric applied to the task of cleaning mushrooms. A mushroom cloth is preferred because mushrooms are porous and when cleaned under a running tap they absorb water, which affects their taste when cooked or served raw. A sharp pointed instrument such as a knife is sometimes required to clean out cracks in chanterelle caps. In general, mushrooms should be cleaned at least half an hour before cooking so they can dry off. After cleaning, it is always best to slice or break up the specimens. Some mushrooms are deceptive: they look fine on the outside, but when you cut in to them; their flesh can be riddled with small maggot holes. Maggots start by attacking the centre if the cap, and work outwards. Cooking Tips Eating Raw Mushrooms: With a few exceptions, such as the common store mushroom, we do not recommend that mushrooms be eaten raw. Nearly all edible wild mushrooms are best eaten freshly cooked after picking. Uncooked mushroom tissues are poorly broken down for digestion, depriving us of their nutritional contents. Many varieties of wild mushrooms are disagreeable when eaten raw because of viscid surfaces or peppery characteristics. However, they become readily digestible and delectable when cooked. Using Butter and Cream: Butter seems to enhance the flavor of most mushrooms. We recommend unsalted butter in cooking. Lemon juice helps mushrooms maintain their color and adds zest to their flavor.

17 17 It is a common observation that mushrooms in some recipes seem to taste much better when cream is added. It is a culinary reality that cannot be avoided despite the current trend away from cream sauces. Milk may substitute for cream if diet is of greater importance than taste. Adding Salt: It is recommended that salt should be added towards the end of cooking since it tends to remove water from mushroom tissues and makes them too soft. We are aware that many mushroom fanciers must limit salt for health reasons. Slicing Mushrooms: Slicing mushrooms allows for more rapid cooking and water loss than when mushrooms are cooked whole. Cut them into uniform thicknesses and they will cook more evenly. Mushrooms with mild and subtle flavors should be cut into large pieces so that their savory juices can be better appreciated. For uniform slicing, because the caps have varying sizes, shapes, and textures, cut mushrooms in half so that they will lie flat on the surface of the cutting board. Soft species such as shaggy manes are difficult to cut unless the knife is sharp and the cut firm. Precooking Mushrooms: Wild mushrooms are often precooked for several different reasons. If freezer storage is planned, it is best to sauté them in butter first, so they will have firmer texture when used later. To prepare marinated mushrooms, either parboil them or simmer them in the marinade liquid. Vinegar and other acidic combinations do not have the same chemical action as does heat and will not eliminate toxins. Certain mushrooms like Macrocybe lobayensis should be parboiled to remove toxins and the water discarded before adding the mushrooms to other ingredients. Using Dried Mushrooms: In using dried mushrooms, they are first rinsed quickly under the faucet and then placed in a bowl. Pour enough hot water over them to cover and soak for the recommended period of time for each type of mushroom. Soaking time will vary

18 18 because of the difference in size, thickness, and shape of each variety. As a rule, this should take at least 15 to 20 minutes. Remove the mushrooms and squeeze them dry. Many of the cook-books recommend saving the soaking liquid for use in the recipe since much mushroom flavor will have been released while rehydrating. We do not practice this as we have noticed that the soaking liquid always impart a smoky taste to the dish. Intensifying Flavor: Mushrooms exude liquid when sautéed in oil or butter. Many chefs prefer to cook most of the fluid off to develop the maximum intensity of the mushroom's flavor. Some recipes require browning the mushrooms to create more flavour. While doing this, constant vigilance is required to avoid burning. Pickling, Salting, Brining and Bottling Pickling mushrooms is a simple method of preserving food, and essentially it's the same as pickling anything else. Pickling can be done by bringing some good white vinegar, with a dessert spoonful of salt, whole peppercorns, a little bit of allspice, and some bay leaves and add the mushrooms. Gently boil them for 10 minutes, put them hot into sterilized jars, gently cover them with gingely or olive oil, cap the jar, and swish it about to make sure everything is covered with oil. It's important to inspect it regularly for the first few months, and make sure no mold forms. Salting can be dry or wet; the latter is more normally referred to as brining. For this, make sure of getting rid of every last bit of grit and maggot, select young, firm mushrooms, and a big glass pot. Put a layer of salt in (coarse salt here is a must, good, big flakes or crystals), cover that with mushrooms, and then add another layer of salt; give it a good hard shove down when done. Assume that you'll use one part by weight salt to three of mushrooms, and be prepared to wing it a bit, and you'll be okay. To use them, soak out some of the salt, and adjust the seasoning in the recipe accordingly.

19 19 Brining mushrooms is a simple procedure; cook the mushrooms in some salty water, make stronger brine with some vinegar, cook it down a bit, and pour it on to the mushrooms in sterile jars. It works, the mushrooms don't go off, but they also don't seem to taste of much. Now, bottle or pressure can mushrooms. Look-alike mushrooms Many of the toxic mushrooms may superficially resemble edible ones. They are called "look-alikes." Mistaken identity and poisoned out of mushroom eating is not confined to India alone. Elsewhere it is known that at least 90% of all fatal fungal poisonings are caused by a single closely related group of species-the whole amanitas. Of these the death cap - Amanita phalloides is the most notorious. Mexicans living in California have eaten Amanita phalloides thinking it was the edible Volvariella volvacea. In China, 1700 people were poisoned and 6 died in the year 2001 by consuming wild fungi. In the Russian Federation, 2240 were poisoned in 1999 and 2770 in the year In Ukraine, 400 people were poisoned and 40 died in Amanita phalloides, though not common, grows in certain parts of Western Ghats of Kerala, in troops, associated with Acacia auriculiformis. A study conducted by the mushroom research team at JNTBGRI revealed that the mushroom poisoning reported by newspapers from different parts of Kerala were caused by the mushroom Chlorophyllum molybdites. Knowing edible mushrooms without knowing anything about their poisonous look-alike is waiting for trouble. Only by examining specimens carefully with regard to physical details one can distinguish between edible and poisonous wild mushrooms. It is worth stressing that each single specimen must be carefully identified as well as checked for general good condition. Identification aids If there is uncertainty about identification, a spore print may help. The stipe is cut off and the cap is placed onto paper with the gills facing down. A glass, cup or saucer is

20 20 placed over the specimen so that air currents do not waft away the spores. Adding 1-3 drops of water to overly dry caps may help to get a better spore print (usually obtained in 1-4 hours, but may take overnight). Spore prints may be the same as the gill color or differently colored. White paper and a glass slide may be used to bring out the spore print more clearly. The use of a slide allows determination of amyloidicity (presence of starch), as determined in the iodine-rich Melzer s solution. When the spores are placed in Melzer s solution the possibilities are amyloid (grayish blue color), dextrinoid (a reddish brown color) and inamyloid (no color except for the yellow tan of Melzer's solution). The spores can be examined under a microscope. Confusion in some genera is really due to a lack of attention to the gross anatomy of fungi. Surface features of mushrooms often change with age, usually with loss of color, viscidity and features of any veil or scale elements present. Scales are innate to a cap or stipe; patches that may be wiped away are secondary to partial or universal veils; a partial veil runs from the edge of the cap to the stipe and a universal veil covers the entire fruiting body. A viscid cap in age as it dries, for example, may display only shininess and, if the examiner is lucky, there are "pasted" leaves or debris on the cap. Mushrooms that are hygrophanous have caps that dry to a lighter color. Since details tend to be lost in aging, identification is easier if both young and older specimens are examined. Guidelines for safe foraging Most cases of mushroom poisoning are the result of allergies (idiosyncratic reactions or hypersensitivity), overindulgence (especially of raw mushroom), or food poisoning (ingestion of rotten mushrooms). All three usually result in nausea, vomiting, and /or diarrhea. Another common type of mushroom poisoning is imaginary-people

21 21 who have lingering doubts about the safety of their meal are likely to experience discomfort whether there is s physiological basis for it or not. Avoid those ubiquitous Little Brown Mushrooms whose species can rarely be determined by amateurs. There are many poisonous species among these little mushrooms that defy identification Never eat any white capped mushroom you have not positively identified; some are deadly. Beware of any mushroom with a ring on its stalk. The delicious Meadow Mushroom, Agaricus campestris, has a ring on its stalk, but so does the Death cap- Amanita phalloides. Beware of any mushroom with a sack or cup about the base of its stalk. The edible Amanita hemibapha has such a sack about its base, but so does the Fool s Mushroom, Amanita verna. Beware of any mushroom with a swollen stalk base. Many edible species have a pronounced swelling at the base of their stalks, e.g., Macrolepiota procera, but many poisonous species of Amanita, e.g., Amanita muscaria, do as well; and in cases where the volval covering has disintegrated, all that is left is a swollen stalk base. Beware of any mushroom with warts, scales, or raised projections on its cap. The edible Parasol Mushroom, Macrolepiota procera, has prominent scales on its cap, but so does many poisonous species, such as the Green-spored Lepiota, Chlorophyllum molybdites and the Fly Agaric, Amanita muscaria. Avoid all species of Boletus, fleshy mushroom with pores instead of gills on the underside of their caps, which have red pore mouths or which stain blue on bruising. Some of these species are edible, but some are poisonous, and their differentiation is particularly difficult.

22 22 Always cut all puffballs in half and examine the contents each specimen. Do not eat any whose inside is not pure white and undifferentiated. Those with interior structures resembling the outline of a mushroom can be deadly amanita buttons. One that is firm but discolored or black within can be an overripe puffball or a poisonous earth ball. Never eat any mushroom found growing on or near dung that is not positively identified. Some edible species of Coprinus and some mildly hallucinogenic psilocybes grow on dung but do so some poisonous species. How to avoid mushroom poisoning (adapted from Shelley Evans' guidelines in "Guides for the Amateur Mycologist - No.4 Guide for the Kitchen Collector: Preservation and Cooking of Fungi. BMS, 1994) Unfamiliar Species: Check and re-check your identification, especially looking out for a similar poisonous species. If still in doubt, ask an expert or throw it away. Examine each specimen. Always check each specimen in case a different species has got in amongst your collection of edible ones. Keep your collections separate. Do not mix edible and non-edible species in a collecting tray if you are collecting for the pot. It is a good idea if collecting for the pot to only collect edible species and not other species for identification purposes. Check the spore print. A simple operation, leaving a cap on some paper and covering for an hour or so. This will help check your identification. Do not eat raw wild fungi. Some wild fungi are poisonous if eaten raw, e.g. Wood Blewit- Lepista nuda, the Blusher- Amanita rubescens or species of Helvella. Always cook your collections.

23 23 Retain an uncooked specimen. This is a very sensible idea. Keep one example of what you have eaten in the fridge. In case, you do poison yourself, this will help others identify what you have eaten and therefore know how to treat you. Different species contain different toxins, therefore treatments will vary. Only eat good specimens. Many poisoning cases occur when edible species are eaten in poor condition. Only eat good specimens! Keep your collections in the fridge. This keeps your specimens in good condition. Experimenting. If experimenting and eating a type for the first time, only eat a small amount. Different people react to fungi in different ways and it is safer to test your own body out gently! Alcohol. Avoid drinking alcohol with species you haven't eaten before and with certain species, e.g. the Common Ink Cap, Coprinus atramentarius. Fear. Do not feed wild mushrooms to people who don't want to eat them. Fear can make people sick. Susceptible people. Do not serve wild fungi to young children, old or sick people. Their resistance may be lower. Greed. Do not eat large quantities of wild mushrooms in one sitting. This alone can make one sick.

24 24 List of edible mushrooms from Kerala Sl. No. Name 1. Agaricus bisporus (J.E.Lange)Imbech 2. Agaricus bitorquis (Quelet) Sacc. 3. Agaricus arvensis Schaeff. 4. Agaricus campestris L. ex Fr. 5. Agaricus impudicus Fr. 6. Agaricus semotus Fr. 7. Agaricus silvaticus Shaeff. ex Seer. 8. Agaricus sp.nov. 9. Agaricus squamuliferus (F.H. Møller) Pilát 10. Agaricus stadii (Petch) Pegler 11. Amanita hemibapha (Berk. & Broome) Sacc. 12. Boletellus ananas (M.A. Curtis) Murrill 13. Boletus chrysenteron Fries 14. Calocybe indica Purkay. & A. Chandra 15. Cantharellus cibarius Peck 16. Cantharellus minor Peck 17. Coprinus comatus (O. F. Mull. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray 18. Coprinus disseminates (Pers.) Gray 19. Coprinus micaceus (Bull.) Fr. 20. Coprinus plicatilis (Curtis) Fr. 21. Hohenbuehelia petaloides (Bull.) Schulzer 22. Hygrocybe nigrescens (Quél.) Kühner 23. Hygrocybe psittacina (Schaeff.:Fr.) P.Kumm. 24. Hygrocybe punicea (Fr.) Kummer

25 Hygrocybe pratensis (Pers.) Murrill 26. Laccaria amethystea (Bull.) Murrill 27. Laccaria laccata (Scop. ex Fr.) Cooke 28. Lacrymaria velutina (Pers.) Konrad & Maubl 29. Lentinus gigantius Berk. 30. Lentinus polychrous Lev. 31. Lentinus sajor-caju (Fr.) Fr. 32. Lentinus squarrosulus Mont. 33. Lentinus strigosus Fr. 34. Lentinus velutinus Fr. 35. Lepista sordida (Fr.) Sing. 36. Leucoagaricus hortensis (Murr.) Pegler 37. Leucocoprinus cepaestipes (Sow. ex Fr.) Pat. 38. Leucocoprinus cretaceus (Bull. ex Fr.) Locq. 39. Leucocoprinus meleagris (Sow) Locquin 40. Macrocybe lobayensis (R. Heim) Pegler & Lodge 41. Macrocybe titans (H.E. Biglow & Kimbr.) Pegler, Lodge & Nakasone 42. Macrolepiota dolichaula (Berk. & Broome) Pegler & R.W. Rayner 43. Macrolepiota excoriata (Schaeff.) Wasser 44. Macrolepiota mastoidea (Fr.) Singer 45. Macrolepiota procera (Scop.: Fr.) Singer 46. Macrolepiota rachodes (Vitt.) Sing. 47. Oudemansiella canerii (Fungh.) Hohn. 48. Oudemansiella radicata (Rehl. ex Fr.) Singer 49. Phlebopus portentosus (Berk. & Broome) Boedjin 50. Pleurotus citrinopileatus Singer

26 Pleurotus cysidiosus O.K.Miller 52. Pleurotus eous (Berk.) Sacc. 53. Pleurotus flabellatus (Berk. & Broome) Sacc. 54. Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P. Kumm. 55. Pluteus ceruvinus (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Kummer 56. Psathyrella candolleana (Fries) Maire 57. Psathryrella spadicea (Schaeff.) Singer 58. Russula aciculocystis Kauffman ex Bills & Miller 59. Russula adusta (Pers. ex Fr.) Fr. 60. Russula albonigra (Krombh.) Fr. 61. Russula congoana Pat. 62. Russula mariae Peck 63. Russula nigricans (Bull.) Fr. 64. Russula romagnesiana Shaffer 65. Schizophyllum commune Fr. ex Fr. 66. Strobilomyces floccopus (Fr.) Karsten 67. Termitomyces clypeatus R. Heim 68. Termitomyces entolomoides R. Heim 69. Termitomyces eurhizus (Berk.) R. Heim 70. Termitomyces globulus Heim & Goossens 71. Termitomyces heimii Natarajan 72. Termitomyces microcarpus (Berk. & Broome) Heim 73. Termitomyces microcarpus (Berk. & Broome) Heim f. elongates Heim 74. Termitomyces radicatus Natarajan 75. Termitomyces robustus (Beeli) R. Heim 76. Termitomyces sagittiformis (Kalchbr. & Cooke) D.A. Reid

27 Termitomyces striatus (Beeli) R. Heim 78. Termitomyces tyleranus Otieno 79. Termitomyces umkowanii (Cooke & Mass.) Reid 80. Trogia infundibuliformis Berk. & Broome 81. Volvariella bombycina (Schaeff.) Singer 82. Volvariella pusilla (Pers.) Singer 83. Volvariella speciosa (Fr.:Fr.) Sing 84. Volvariella terastia (Berk. & Broome) Singer 85. Volvariella volvaceae (Bull. ex Fr.) Singer

28 28 Genus Agaricus L.ex Fr. The Agaricus family is large and fairly common throughout the entire world, and it is from one single member of the family, A.bisporus, that all our familiar cultivated mushrooms are believed to derive. In the genus Agaricus there are about 200 species world-wide (Harkonen, et al, 2003). They are characterized by a white to brownish colour, the presence of a ring and gills which are pink when young, finally becoming dark chocolate brown as the spores mature. The colour changes of the context, the structure of the ring and odour are also important. They are decomposers and grow on soil rich in humus. Agaricus is the most commonly cultivated mushroom genus in the world. The species that are known to cause severe stomach upsets normally show a distinct yellow colour change at the base of the stem on cutting or bruising. 1. Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Imbach (White button mushroom) The common store mushroom, Agaricus bisporus, (also known as "commercial mushroom" and "button mushroom") is the most widely cultivated mushroom in the world. The mushroom grows naturally in grasslands, fields and meadows. It is found in manure heaps and garden waste and on road sides. It was first cultivated on horse manure heaps in France in the 1700s. It is still grown this way. The cultivation of A.bisporus began in the vicinity of Paris. In India the commercial cultivation of A.bisporus was started in Himachal Pradesh in The agro-climatic conditions of Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir valley seem to be the most suitable for the cultivation of button mushroom although hilly regions in north, south and eastern India are also favourable for growing this species. In Kerala, this species is cultivated in Munnar.

29 29 The cap is 3 to 16 cm across; convex to broadly convex or nearly flat in age; dry; smooth or with pressed-down fibers or small scales; white in some varieties, brown in others. Gills are free from the stem; close; pinkish to pinkish brown at first, becoming dark brown to blackish with age. Stipe is 2 to 8 cm long and 1 to 3 cm dia., sturdy, smooth or with small scales below the ring that sometimes disappear in maturity. Stipe surface is smooth and white, often bruising brownish. Spore print is chocolate brown. A. bisporus is thought of as the universal mushroom. It may be substituted for almost any recipe. This is one of the few mushrooms that can be eaten raw in a salad or for dips. Added to vegetarian casseroles or stews, they may simulate pieces of meat. Fresh Agaricus may be stored in the refrigerator for a week in an open bowl covered with waxed paper avoiding plastic. They may also be sautéed in butter and frozen. They are surprisingly good when cut into 1/2- to 3/4-inch slices and dried at home for later rehydration. Whole unopened buttons taste best. Once the partial veil protecting the gills has broken and the cap expands, the flesh becomes softer, cooks darker, and has a stronger taste. These more mature mushrooms do not keep as well as buttons. Specimens studied: TBGT (M):511 Locality: Idukki Dt.: Munnar Season: February 2. Agaricus bitorquis (Quelet) Sacc. (The Pavement mushroom) Agaricus bitorquis is an edible white mushroom, similar to the common button mushroom that is sold commercially. Agaricus bitorquis, commonly is known as the pavement mushroom because it often appears on the edges of pavements and sometimes even erupts through or pushes open the gaps between paving slabs. The Latin word bitorquis means

30 30 'with two collars' - a reference to the double ring that results when the partial veil covering the young gills tears from the cap rim, leaving thin white annuli where the veil was attached at two regions of the stem, one high up and the other lower down. Initially convex and then becoming flattened, the surface of the cap of Agaricus bitorquis is white and finely flaky and the thick cap flesh is white, turning slightly pink on exposure to air. More often than not, the cap surface is discoloured by earth, and in some instances these mushroom actually mature underground or with only a small part of the cap rim visible from above ground. At maturity, the cap diameter is between 4 and 10 cm. The gills of Agaricus bitorquis are narrow and free; initially grey-pink they turn chocolate brown and eventually almost black as the fruit body matures. The white stipe of a Pavement Mushroom is shorter in proportion than that of many species in this genus. The stem is solid and its diameter is 1.5 to 2cm. Below the insubstantial membranous double ring, the surface of the stem is flaky. Spore print is deep chocolate brown and he spores are subglobose measuring x 4-5µm. It is found growing on dry soil beside footpaths; occasionally seen pushing up through tarmac or in the gaps between paving slabs. Pavement mushrooms are fairly rare in Kerala. They are good to eat. Specimens studied: TBGT (M):784, 7370, 7512,7569,7705,7882 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: June-September 3. Agaricus campestris L. ex Fr. (Meadow mushroom) The meadow mushroom grows in grassy areas and hence the name. Its species name campestris is derived from the Latin word campus (meaning 'field'). It can be found

31 31 worldwide and appears in fields and grassy areas after rain. Its convex to nearly flat cap is whitish with a smooth surface. In wet weather the cap surface may be somewhat watery pink. The gills are free from the stem and are covered by a white partial veil when the mushroom s young. They soon become deep pink and finally dark brown as the sores mature. The stem is short and tapers to the base. It occasionally features a fragile ring, but more often the ring disappears. The stem surface is whitish (or pinkish in wet weather or when bruised). There is no sack around the stem base. The flesh is thick and white and rather hard in the stem. It may turn slightly pink when sliced, but never turns yellowish. The odour is pleasant and mild. The spore print is chocolate brown. Agaricus campestris is a saprobe that grows in grassy areas (lawns, meadows, and so on). It grows alone or scattered. It is closely related to the cultivated white 'button mushrooms' sold in grocery stores but, typically, it is smaller and rather more delicate in stature, while having the same characteristic mushroom smell. The species is not very common in Kerala and was collected from Munnar. A. campestris is especially good with eggs, most vegetables, meats, and stuffings. This mushroom can be used to top mozzarella-cheese pizza and on baking in a hot oven, the juices flavor the cheese giving the pizza an amazing taste. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 3035 Locality: Idukki Dst.: Munnar Season: May 4. Agaricus impudicus Fr. Agaricus impudicus is one of the many edible wood mushrooms, but it is far from remarkable for its flavour and so not much sought for by fungi foragers. This attractive species is widespread, but it is only an occasional find in Kerala.

32 32 The cap is 5 to 10 cm across; initially convex, often becoming flat topped as it expands; large scales usually in various shades of dark brown on a pale brown background; whitish flesh slowly turning only slightly red when cut. Gills are free; crowded; greyish pink, turning brown with age. Stipe is 6 to 10cm long and 0.8 to 1.2 cm dia., with a slightly bulbous base with a white pendulous ring. Stipe surface is smooth and white, turning brown with age. Spore print is chocolate brown. The odour is not distinctive and taste is mild. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 6537, 11193, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Kollam Dt.: Palaruvi Season: June-August 5. Agaricus nivescens (F.H. Møller) F.H. Møller, Friesia 4(3): 204 (1952) (Snowy cap) This is another common field species in Europe but in Kerala it is often found in plantations. It is characterized by a beautiful pale yellow, fleshy, smooth pileus. other striking characters are the odour of aniseed, yellowing of the stipe, positive Schaeffer reaction and catenulate cheilocystidia. The cap is 3 to 9 cm across; initially subglobose, then convex and finally applanate; apically truncate; surface light yellow, smooth and glabrous; margin strongly appendiculate with velar remnants. Gills are free, crowded, white then pink, turning brown with age. Stipe is 8 to 14 cm long and 0.8 to 1.5 cm dia., annulate, stuffed with a cottony mass, equal with a swollen base, with white floccose evanescent squamules. Stipe surface is smooth and white, turning brown with age. Spore print is chocolate brown. Odour is of aniseed and taste is mild. Scattered in litter decomposed soil.

33 33 Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 828, 2304, 2401, 2504, 3950, 3974, 4162, 5851, 6349, 6605, 6717, 9705, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Thannimoodu Season: May-October 6. Agaricus semotus Fr. (The remote agaric or rosy wood mushroom) Agaricus semotus is a woodland mushroom which can be found spread throughout moist areas. The cap is 2-6 cm diam., convex, often becoming plane as it expands, sometimes with a low umbo; margin at first incurved, then decurved, finally either plane or slightly raised, surface cream-buff covered with vinaceous-brown to buff-brown appressed squamules or fibrils concentrated near the disc, sparse towards the margin; surface bruising yellowish, eventually orange-brown, yellowing in KOH; flesh white to pallid, soft, thin; odor and taste of anise. Gills are free; close, moderately broad, at first cream, becoming light brown, at maturity dark-brown. The stipe is 3-7 cm tall cm thick, round, stuffed, equal to tapering to an enlarged base; surface silky to finely longitudinally striate at the apex, elsewhere smooth or with scattered fibrils and scales, conspicuous rhizomorphs are seen at the base; color white to cream, bruising yellowish to tawnybrown; veil membranous, thin, forming a narrow, fragile, buff to light-brown, superior ring, occasionally leaving fragments on the young cap. Spore print is chocolate brown. This woodland Agaricu species is recognized by its modest sized, anise-odour, cap with vinaceous brown to brown, appressed fibrils/squamules concentrated near the disc and yellow to tawny bruising reaction. The species grows solitary to gregarious in forest litter. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 7232, 7852, 8966, 9128, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Kollam Dt.: Thanmala, Achenkovil Season: May-October

34 34 7. Agaricus silvaticus Shaeff. ex Seer. (Scaly wood mushroom) Agaricus silvaticus, an edible species, otherwise known as the 'Scaly Wood Mushroom' or 'Blushing Wood Mushroom', is common in Kerala, mostly found growing solitary on the forest floor. The mushroom is quite large when mature. The cap can grow up to 10cm in diameter and typically has a pale background that is covered in brown fibrils or scales (but can be very variable). The cap and stipe turn bright red if they are scratched or broken and is therefore sometimes referred to as the Red Staining Mushroom. Several of the Agaricus mushrooms that occur in woodland habitats have flesh that turns slightly red when cut or bruised, but none changes colour as rapidly and easily as the aptly-named Blushing Wood Mushroom. When young, the caps are convex, flattening as the mushroom matures. The gills are enclosed in a white veil and are grey-pink when young. They become deep brown as the mushroom ages, are crowded, narrow and free. The spore print is very dark brown. The stipe is central, up to 8cm long and can be up to 1cm wide with a bulbous base. It is dirty white and hollow, has a large, pale grey, drooping ring, below which the stem is typically scaly. The flesh is quite thin in the cap, is white and firm and becomes orange-red and then blood red on cutting (though the flesh of older specimens will be brown and may not noticeably redden). It has a pleasant, mild, scent and taste. This is a good edible species. It also dries well and can be used in any recipe. The spore print is Chocolate brown. It grows solitary or scattered among forest litter on the ground. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 3224, 3308, 3453, 3635, 3705, 3914, 4163, 4490, 5014, 5043, 5047, 5381, 5644, 8581, 9229, 10293, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Wayanad Dt.: Ponkuzhi Season: During the summer showers (April-May), South west monsoon (June-Sept. and North-east monsoon (Oct-Dec.).

35 35 8. Agaricus sp.nov. This beautiful white Agaricus was found growing in troops in association with Acacia auriculiformis. This is a novel species, not matching with any of the described species in the genus Agaricus. The mushroom has a flowery aroma and is edible. Edibility of the species was tested and confirmed at the Mushroom Research Lab of JNTBGRI. The cap is uniformly clay in the button stage, soon breaking in to appressed squamules, distributed almost in concentric rings on a white background, which turns oxblood red when exposed to heavy rain and pink droplets of water are seen on the underside of the gills. Stipe is white and fistulose. Annulus is large, rosy white and flaring, with white cottony patches on the underside in young fruit bodies, soon collapsing. Scattered on ground among litter under Acacia auriculiformis. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 9679, 9698, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: Perayam Season: August, October. 9. Agaricus squamuliferus (F.H. Møller) Pilát Agaricus squamuliferus can be distinguished by a scaly white cap that bruises pinkishred when injured. Cap is 4-8 cm broad, convex, broadly convex to nearly plane in age, white, dry, innately fibrillose, finely-scaled at the margin, discoloring brown in age; flesh, white, moderately thick, firm, turning pinkish-red when injured; odour mushroomy, taste mild. Gills are free, close, pinkish-brown becoming blackish-brown in age. The stipe is 5-11 cm tall, 1-2 cm thick, equal, to enlarged at the base, stuffed at maturity; surface white, more or less smooth at the apex, finely scaled below; partial veil white, membranous, two layered, upper surface striate, lower surface with scaly

36 36 patches, forming a small, superior annulus; flesh white, staining red quickly when injured. Spore print is chocolate brown and the spores measure 5-6 x 3-4 µm, smooth, elliptical. Grows solitary to scattered on ground. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 2996, 3195, 3829,13580,13628,13662 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt: Njakkad, TBGRI campus. Season: April, May, June 10. Agaricus stadii (Petch) Pegler This fleshy fungus which was found growing in open grassy areas in Calicut University campus is consumed by the local people residing outside the campus. It must be closely allied to the widespread species A.campestris, but differs in a much more strongly developed annulus, the lack of any pink dioscolouration in the context, and no indication of a rudimentary germpore at the spore-apex. Basidiomes are always small in size, never attaining the larger dimensions of A.campestris. This species is often found growing in large fairy rings. The cap cm broad, fleshy, convex to nearly plane in age, white or slightly buff at the centre, dry, smooth or cracked to appear subsquamulose, finally with a vinaceous tinge when old or exposed to rain; flesh white, moderately thick, firm, not discolouring when cut or bruised; odour mushroomy, taste mild. Gills are free, close, pinkish-white becoming blackish-brown in age. The stipe is cm tall and mm thick, equal or with a slightly thickened base, stuffed at maturity; surface white or slightly yellowish, smooth; partial veil well developed, white, membranous, mostly superior. Spore print is chocolate brown and the spores measure 6-7 x µm, smooth, ovoid to ellipsoid, with a thickened fuscous brown wall. Grows scattered on ground.

37 37 Specimens studied: CALI: V10, V55, V80, V116, V126, V239, V447, V454, V466, V467, V470, V510, V511,V512, V514, V521, V544, V553, V554 Locality: Malappuram Dt.: Calicut University campus. Season: May- June; September-December. Genus Amanita Pers. Amanita is supposed to be derived from Mount Amanus, an ancient name of a range separating Cilicia from Syria. It is supposed that Galen first brought specimens of this fungus from that region. Members of the genus Amanita include some of the world's best known and most beautiful fungi. Amanita species are recognized by their usually pale gills, which are free from the stem; their white spore prints; the presence of a universal veil that often creates a volva or other distinctive features on the stem; and their more or less dry caps. Most Amanitas' gills are white or pallid, though some species have gills that are either entirely yellow or that have yellow edges. Many species of Amanita have warts or patches on their caps, and many have a ring on the stem. A striking characteristic of the genus Amanita is the sac-like volva at the stipe base. In some species only zones and scales may be observed. In some Amanita species the edge of the cap is noticeably striate; most of those species have either warts on the cap or a cuplike volva around the base of the stalk. The volva should be considered a warning, for the most notoriously poisonous amanitas exhibit this structure. The volva is often hidden down in the duff on the forest floor. Many amanitas also have partial veils covering the gills of young specimens; these are more-or-less membranous tissues that extend from the upper stalk to the edge of the cap at first, and later end up appearing as a skirt- or ring-like structure on the stalk.

38 38 The spore deposit is white. Species of Amanita are mycorrhizal. Some Amanitas, such as the Death Cap (A. phalloides) and the Destroying Angel (A. virosa), are deadly poisonous and amanitas account for the vast majority of the world's fatal mushroom poisonings. Both of them have been recorded from Kerala. 11. Amanita hemibapha (Berk. & Broome) Sacc Amanita hemibapha, the tropical relative of the highly prized Caesar s mushroom- A.caesarea, is an excellent edible species, which has morphological and culinary features that make it interesting. It is characterized by the attractive large orange to reddish basidiomata, convex pileus, yellow gills, yellow stipe with yellow annulus and white saccate volva. The only species it could be confused with is A.muscaria var. formosa. A. muscaria var. formosa is a similarly coloured mushroom but with white floccose remnants of the universal veil distributed throughout the pileal surface. When the veil remnants on the cap of A.muscaria gets washed off by rain the surface looks as smooth as in A.hemibapha. The latter however differs distinctly by the lamellae which remains white and the white stipe without a saccate lobed volva. Amanita hemibapha was described from a botanical garden in Sri Lanka. Associated plants are the dipterocarps- Hopea parviflora, Vateria indica and the nutmeg, Myristica fragrans. This species is reported widely from Southeast Asia and Oceania. In Kerala it is abundant in the Kallar forests of Thiruvananthapuram where there are plenty of dipterocarps. They are seen scattered in troops on the forest floor under these trees. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 131; 533; 539; 585; 601; 625; 871; 972; 2018; 2858; 2909; 3890; 3973; 4155; 4671; 5004; 5161; 5700; 5862; 5872; 7069; 7333; 8126; 8628; 8749; 8791; 10250; 10258; 12360; 12533; 12549; 12638; 13200; 13346; 13579; Locality: Thiruvananthapuram District: Agasthyamala, Bonacaud, Kallar, TBGRI campus Season: February, April-August.

39 39 Genus Boletellus Murrill (Small Boletus) The genus Boletellus has a widespread distribution, especially in subtropical regions, and contains about 50 species. The genus was first described by American mycologist William Alphonso Murrill in The genus name means "small Boletus". According to Murrill's definition of the genus, species of Boletellus have an annual fruit body that grows on wood and a stem that is centrally placed. The cap surface is floccose-verrucose (covered with tufts of hairs or warts) and yellowish. The fruit body flesh is light colored and fleshy. The tubes on the underside of the cap are angular, depressed, yellowish, and covered with a partial veil. The spores of Boletellus are oblong to ellipsoid, smooth, and rust-colored. The stem is solid (i.e., not hollow), white, and not reticulate. Additional characteristics of the genus have been delineated or amended since its original description over 100 years ago: spores have longitudinal ridges or "wings", are imamyloid, and rarely dextrinoid (staining deep reddish to reddish brown in Melzer's reagent). Species usually have hymenial cystidia present, and clamp connections are typically absent. 12. Boletellus ananas (M.A. Curtis) Murrill (Pineapple bolete) This fungus turns blue when damaged and is found growing from wood. The squamose, red pileus soon fades to a pale tan and forms coarse squamules. A veil (an extension of the pileus margin) covers the hymenophore at first and then breaks up into appendiculate remnants. The tubes are yellow and change to blue when bruised. The spores have longitudinal ridges with transverse striae when observed with a light microscope. Always found growing on wood.

40 40 Murrill placed Boletellus ananas (formerly Boletus ananas) as the sole and type species. Singer's fourth edition (1986) of his Agaricales in Modern Taxonomy included 33 species, which were classified into sections depending on moisture content, scaliness of the cap or amount of ornamentation on the stem. This striking bolete is recognized in the field by its red-pink squamose pileus, membrneous marginal appendiculae, bright yellow, rapidly blue staining hymenophore, cyanescent trama and fruiting habit. This is a new addition to the Indian edible mushrooms. Solitary at the base of Holigarna arnottiana, an evergreen tree species endemic to Western Ghats. Specimens examined: TBGT (M): 12756, 13501, 13777, 13818, 14371, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: July-Oct. Genus Boletus Fr. Boletus is currently the largest genus of boletes. Identifying Boletu species has never been particularly easy, anyway; it has always been a frustrating endeavor. These mushrooms often change their appearance rather drastically as they develop. Specific identification pitfalls include cap color and bruising or staining changes. In general, color is one of the most unreliable features for mushroom identification but with mushrooms in Boletus, one is especially likely to encounter problems with cap color. A mushroom described as having a black cap is not likely to have a white one, of course, but the brownish- and reddishcapped mushrooms in Boletus (which is most of them) are frequently variable in color, and subject to color changes due to weather conditions. As far as bruising or staining goes, you will need to be sure to check such reactions with fresh mushrooms, preferably within an hour of picking them. Waiting too long may produce unreliable results. The genus comprises over 100 species.

41 Boletus chrysenteron Fries (Red cracking Bolete) Boletus chrysenteron is a small, edible, wild mushroom in the family Boletaceae having tubes and pores instead of gills beneath their caps. It is commonly known as the 'Red Cracking Bolete'. This can be recognized by its brown to olive brown, cracked cap; pinkish to reddish flesh is exposed in the cracks, separating it from most other boletes. This is a mycorrhizal species growing in association with hardwoods, especially oaks; growing scattered or gregariously. The cap is 3-8 cm diam., convex, becoming broadly convex or almost flat, dry, finely velvety when young, becoming cracked in age, usually conspicuously, with reddish to pinkish flesh showing in the cracks, especially towards the margin; brown to olive brown, rarely reddish overall, marginal area often reddish in age. The pore surface is yellow when young, becoming brownish or olive, sometimes with reddish areas in age, bruising blue, sometimes slowly, with 1-2 angular pores per mm, tubes to 1 cm deep. The stipe is 4-7 cm long, cm thick, more or less equal, or tapering to base, solid, yellow above, reddish below, purplish red at base, basal mycelium white to yellowish, not reticulate, but sometimes with a few ridges, bruising blue-green. Flesh is white when young, yellow in age, staining slowly bluish on exposure. Odor and taste not distinctive. Spore Print is olive brown in colour and the spores are smooth, subfusiform, 9-13 x µm. The species may be recognized by the olive brown colour of the dry, tomentose to velutinous pileus, aerolate condition of the mature pilei in which reddish pigments develop in the cracks, the yellowish to pallid stipe, which characteristically develop reddish areas with age, and the non truncated spores. Young specimens of B.chrysenteron often have a dark, dry surface, and tomentose, thin, flesh that turns a blue colour when slightly cut or bruised. It smells fruity with a sweetish taste. When a little older, the entire mushroom is

42 42 quite damp to the touch. It is good to eat when young, spongier when more mature. It is better to cook with other mushrooms. Solitary to gregarious in soil in mixed forests. This bolete forms mycorrhizal associations with Holigarna arnotiana which is endemic to Western Ghats. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 590, 933,1007,1134,1770, 2031, 2361, 2681, 2828, 2928, 3239, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Ernakulum Dt.: Iringole sacred grove Season: April-May; August September. Genus Calocybe Kuhn. ex Donk (Dome caps) Calocybe is a small genus of about 40 species of mushroom, including milky mushroom, Calocybe indica, which is edible and can be cultivated throughout the year in the entire of India even in hot humid climate. The name is derived from the Ancient Greek terms kalos "pretty", and cubos "head". Around nine species are found in neotropical regions. The species is widely cultivated in Kerala but has not been collected from the wild. 14. Calocybe indica Purkay. & A. Chandra (Milky mushroom) Calocybe indica was originally described from W. Bengal and this is the first indigenous mushroom to be commercialized in the country. Thos mushroom was very popular among a section of people for its attractive milk-white colour and delicacy. The wild form of this mushroom was sold in markets of West Bengal at a moderately high price. Mushrooms are white in color, thick and stocky and looks like a white umbrella. The species was first described in 1974 (Purkayastha & Chandra) but at that time its cultivation technology was

43 43 quite unknown. In view of its popularity and demand in the local markets, an attempt was made to produce sporocarps in culture and it was possible to grow this species in a soil jar as well as in conical flasks (Purkasyastha & Chandra, 1976). The substrate in which it was grown was very simple; only a mixture of soil-sand-maize meal was used to cultivate this edible species. Subsequently, for tray cultivation, wheat grain spawn and casing soil were also used although a number of difficulties were encountered initially to grow this mushroom in trays. Success was finally achieved after repeated trials. Calocybe indica has not been collected from the wild though they are widely cultivated in Kerala. Genus Cantharellus Adans ex Fr. The genus Cantharellus contains many species known generally as chanterelles, though for the most part the name refers to the most famous species C. cibarius. It is a mycorrhizal edible fungus, forming symbiotic associations with plants, making it very challenging to cultivate. Still, the golden chanterelle is one of the most recognized edible mushrooms and can be found in Asia, Europe, North America and Australia. The genus is rare and they are not very abundant and popular in Kerala. They are easy to recognize. Fruit bodies are fleshy but firm, small to medium sized, brightly coloured, often trumpet- or funnel shaped. The hymenium is folded in to shallow, longitudinally oriented ridges, or well developed gills. Smell is usually fruity, very pleasant. They usually hide beneath the leaves and fruit under the overhanging cover of logs and fallen branches In TBGRI campus, we have collected them from under rattans along the river side. Chanterelles are relatively clean mushrooms. They are usually free from insect larvae, though older individuals may display larval tunnel openings in the cap centers.

44 44 Chanterelles are versatile and can be added as an ingredient to most dishes. Chanterelles in general go well with eggs, curry, chicken, pork, fish, beef and veal, can be used as toppings on pizzas, be stewed, marinated, sautéed in olive oil, or used as filling for stuffed recipes. Since the mushrooms hold a lot of water, they are often prepared using a "dry sauté" method: after cleaning, the mushrooms are sliced and put in a covered pan over high heat with no oil or butter. The mushrooms then release much of their water which can be poured off and used as a stock. Fresh chanterelles can generally be stored up to ten days in a refrigerator. Caution must be used when identifying chanterelles for consumption; lookalikes, such as the Jack-O-Lantern (Omphalotus olearius), can make a person very ill. 15. Cantharellus cibarius Peck (The golden chanterelle) Commonly called golden chanterelles, C.cibarius is one of the most popular of the edible fungi. The delicate aroma of apricots and wonderful golden yellow colour make the chanterelle a beautiful and graceful mushroom. This chantherelle is well-known and much appreciated in many parts of the world for its esculent qualities. They are quite distinctive in appearance and so not easily confused with other species. Thick, blunt, shallow, fold-like decurrent gills, golden orange colour and fruity odour are characteristic features. They are rich in vitamin A & D and pigment carotene. Young specimens are best and cooking must be long and slow. They are also safe to eat raw and make a colourful addition to salads. The most likely confusion is with the Jack O'Lantern fungus but it has a very unpleasant smell and typically grows on the trunks and buried roots of trees. Cibarius means pertaining to food. Solitary, gregarious or occasionally on soil or humus.

45 45 Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 98; 173; 214; 269; 349; 810; 937; 998; 1016; 1516; 1549; 1860; 1948; 2111; 2245; 2520; 3511; 3714; 4043; 4093; 4354; 6451; 6490; 6687; 8245; 8310; 9284; 9897; 11411; 11715; Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Kallar; Wayanad Dt.: Ponkuzhy, Muthanga Season: April-November 16. Cantharellus minor Peck (Yellow Chanterelles or Small Chanterelles) Cantharellus minor is a fungus native to eastern North America. It is one of the smallest of the genus Cantharellus, which includes other edible chanterelles. As with all chanterelles, these have false gills and an orange-yellow color to the fruit body. These are small mushrooms. However, they oftentimes grow in moss and oftentimes there are hundreds so the picking can be quite easy. The cap colour is yellow to dark yellow, approaching gold as the mushroom matures. The gill-like spore bearing surface is often veined and is a darker shade than the cap. The stems are yellow, like the cap, and are usually slightly hollow. The stem may not be always perfectly round as in many other mushrooms, they will be flattened in some portion of its length and/or bent and twisted with indented areas. The taste is very agreeable, as is the texture after cooking. Another good thing about these little chanterelles, contrary to the larger varieties of chanterelles, is that they dry very well and reconstitute very well. That is always a great advantage. Specimens studied: 1340, 1446, 1809, 1825, 1826, 1918, 2734, 2767, 3395, 3528, 3665, 3708, 4030, 4362, 4382, , 6962, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI Campus, Kulathupuzha; Wayanad Dt.: Muthanga Season: July-August; October November

46 46 Genus Coprinus Pers. ex S.F. Gray (Inky caps) Inky caps are fascinating mushrooms. They are saprobes, assisting in the decomposition of wood, dung, grassy debris, forest litter, and so on. Most of the species have black spore prints and gills that liquefy, at least partially, as the mushroom matures. The resulting "ink" provides the common name for the inky caps. Recent DNA studies have resulted in some fascinating rearrangements of the coprinoid mushrooms. Identification of inky caps ranges from fairly easy to extremely difficult, especially when it comes to the tiny ones. Study of ink caps can be a challenge, since many are so ephemeral that they appear, liquefy, and turn into black goo within a matter of hours. 17. Coprinus comatus (O. F. Mull. ex Fr.) S. F. Gray (Shaggy ink cap) The Shaggy Ink Cap, Coprinus comatus (also known as Lawyer's Wig, or Shaggy Mane) is wide spread in temperate regions and is commercially grown in China and many parts of India. At this initial stage the cap is narrowly parabolic and no stem is visible. As the mushroom matures they resemble a rugby ball in shape and the outer surface breaks up into shaggy scales (the top will be a muddy brown). As the mushroom opens further the base of the cap reveals the gills which begin as white then turn pink and then black. At this stage the cap pulls away from the stem and the edge of the cap begins to deliquesce, releasing the spores in a black liquid (the ink). Mature, open, specimens should not be picked. The stem is smooth, white and hollow and tends to shatter when picked. It is broader at the base and bears a single movable ring (which may have been rubbed off). The gills are crowded but free, white in the beginning, then turning pink and finally black. The flesh is white and thin and when young has a mild and pleasantly mushroomy aroma.

47 47 The spore print is black. The mushroom must be picked young and should be eaten as soon as possible (at least within an hour of picking) as enzymes within the mushroom will quickly lead to its liquefying, though keeping the stem intact will help keep it a little longer. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 10477; 14657; Locality: Wayanad Dt.: Muthanga Season: February, March, August 18. Coprinus disseminates (Pers.: Fries) J. E. Lange (Fairy ink cap mushroom) Coprinus disseminatus typically fruits in clusters near the bases of stumps, sometimes in astounding numbers. Its cap is initially white, but soon begins to turn grayish brown, with a brownish center. Even though the gills do deliquesce, Coprinus disseminatus is still easily recognized as a coprinoid mushroom by its cap shape and grayish black gills. It is an extremely fragile mushroom, and the caps quickly crumble when handled. Often forming large troops on woody debris, this diminutive Coprinus is characterized by a broadly parabolic to convex, pale greyish-brown, striate cap with a yellowish-brown disc. Since the gills of this species do not deliquesce, thus some authors have placed it in the genus Pseudocoprinus. Recent molecular studies suggest however that it properly belongs in Coprinellus. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 12299; 13067; 13535; 14237; Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Kollam Dt.: Thenmala Season: February, August- November

48 Coprinus micaceus (Bull.) Fr. (Glistening Ink cap) Coprinus micaceus is a common species with a cosmopolitan distribution. The fruit bodies typically grow in clusters on or near rotting hardwood tree stumps or underground tree roots. Coprinus micaceus gets its common name from the glistening particles that cover the young, developing caps. These soon wash or wear off. However, it is still easily recognized by the yellow-brown caps, clustered fruiting habit, deliquescing gills, and tendency to fruit near rotting wood. This common and beautiful mushroom is widely distributed in Kerala. It grows in clusters on decaying wood--though the wood may be buried, causing the mushrooms to look terrestrial. It can be distinguished from similar coprinoid mushrooms by the fine, mica-like granules that adorn the fresh caps (though rain will frequently wash the granules away). It is variable in color, but typically some version of honey brown or amber. This small fungus can be found in large groups, making it worthwhile to collect. Only those where the gills are still white may be collected for food. They need to be refrigerated quickly and cooked within 24hrs (otherwise they will deliquesce). The cap is 1.5-5cm high, ovoid expanding to bell-shaped, with a split or sometimes rolledback margin that is lined and grooved almost to the center; tawny becoming cinnamon toward the center; covered with white powdery granules from the veil, especially when young, becoming smooth. Gills are attached, close, moderately broad; white becoming date brown then black. Stem is x 2-5mm, hollow, fragile; white, discoloring buff in lower part; smooth or slightly felty. Odor none. Spores ellipsoid, smooth, with pore at tip, 7-10 x µ. Spore print date brown to blackish.

49 49 Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 307 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: November 20. Coprinus plicatilis (Curtis) Fr. (Pleated Ink cap or the Little Japanese Umbrella) Commonly referred to as the Pleated Ink cap, and sometimes as the Little Japanese Umbrella, Coprinus plicatilis is a very delicate member of the ink cap group of fungi. It occurs in short grass. This is one of the many short-lived grassland fungi that appear overnight following rain; the fruit bodies develop, expand, shed their spores and decay within 24 hours and by the next morning there is usually little or no evidence of them ever having existed. The Pleated Ink cap was first described scientifically in 1777 by British mycologist William Curtis ( ), who named it Agaricus plicatilis. (At that time most gilled fungi were initially placed in the genus Agaricus, which has since been largely redistributed across many newer genera.) In 1838 the great Swedish mycologist Elias Magnus Fries transferred this species to the genus Coprinus, where as Coprinus plicatilis, it resided undisturbed for the best part of two centuries. In 2001, based on DNA sequencing, Redhead, Vilgalys & Hopple redistributed most of the species formerly collected in the Coprinus genus. The Pleated Parasol was moved to the genus Parasola along with a great many superficially similar little mushrooms, and so its scientific name became Parasola plicatilis. (A microscope is essential to separate the various Parasola species with certainty; even then it is no task for a beginner.) Specimens studied: TBGT (M): Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: May

50 50 Genus Hohenbuehelia Schulzer Members of the genus Hohenbuehelia grow on wood or on woody debris and are usually stem-less, pleurotoid mushrooms. They have white spore prints and often smell and taste mealy. The genus is full of drab colors, from boring shades of beige to dull browns and blacks. Other defining features of the genus include stunning "metuloid" cystidia and a "nematophagous" tendency, species of Hohenbuehelia eat nematodes. Identification of Hohenbuehelia species frequently depends, at least in part, on microscopic examination. The genus has a widespread distribution and contains about 50 species. Members of this genus are small to medium sized mushrooms that are stalk less or have rudimentary lateral stalks. They are fan- to shell-shaped or somewhat funnel shaped agarics that grow on decaying wood, sawdust or woody debris. They have white spore prints and very thick walled cystidia that are often incrusted. Accurate identification to species often requires the use of a microscope. They have an unusual adaptation: recent research has shown that these otherwise harmless agarics have developed a way to trap nematodes and can therefore be considered to be among the few known carnivorous fungi. 21. Hohenbuehelia petaloides (Bull.) Schulzer (Shoehorn Oyster Mushroom) This oyster mushroom look-alike species was once placed in Pleurotus, but was moved into its own genus because the cap was shown to have a distinctive gelatinous layer and the gills, large, thick-walled cheilocystidia. The latter character, which gives the gill edges a pubescent aspect, plus the tendency to grow on wood chips as opposed to logs, helps to distinguish it from Pleurotus ostreatus and its close relatives.

51 51 Hohenbuehelia petaloides is distinctively shaped; its "petaloid" habit often makes it look like a shoehorn with gills, or a rolled-up funnel. Other identifying features include its fairly crowded whitish gills, a white spore print, mealy odor and taste and, under the microscope, gorgeous "metuloids" (thick-walled pleurocystidia). It often appears in urban or semi-urban areas and is frequently associated with woody debris (though it does not usually grow directly from dead wood) or cultivated soil. Hohenbuehelia petaloides was rightfully named after Austrian mycologist/botanist/statesmen, Ludwig Samuel Joseph David Alexander von Hohenbühel Heufler ( ). Due to the fan-like appearance of this species, it is more droningly known as the Leaf-like Oyster. H. petaloides is a wood decay fungi and obtains nitrogen by catching nematodes with its sticky hyphae. The nematode violently lashes about as a fly would if trapped in spider web. The quick movement only brings the doomed nematode closer to its death. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 4216; 9566; 10546; 10553; 10727; Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Wayanad Dt.: Begur, Muthanga Season: September-November Genus Hygrocybe (Fr.) Kummer Hygrocybes, commonly called as wax caps are often brightly coloured and have waxy to slimy caps, white spores, and smooth, ringless stems. Most are ground-dwelling. They are brightly coloured mushrooms in shades of red, yellow, green or white. Around 150 species are currently recognized worldwide. Fruit bodies of several Hygrocybe species are considered edible. Identification of waxy caps ranges from easy to extremely difficult. Some, like the blackening and brilliantly scarlet Hygrocybe conica, are immediately recognizable and distinct.

52 Hygrocybe nigrescens (Quél.) Kühner (Blackening wax cap) The colour of this fungi can vary from deep red to yellowy-orange. It has a deeply lobed conical cap, which is sometimes pointed at the top. The stem is creamy-yellow to orange. The whole mushroom turns black, like charcoal, with age. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 147; 290; 338; 368; 435; 621; 809; 901; 918; 1054; 1094; 1223; 1317; 1477; 1733; 1808; 1898; 2058; 2066; 2094; 2364; 5093; 6173; 6175; 8806; 10318; 10565; 10571; 11960; Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Kollam Dt.: Cheenikkala, Thenmala; Malappuram Dt.: Nilambur Season: May-November 23. Hygrocybe psittacina (Schaeff.:Fr.) P.Kumm. (Parrot wax cap) Hygrocybe psittacina, a colourful member of the genus Hygrocybe is unmistakable in its early stages of development when it is distinctively parrot-green (and decidely slimy). But it quickly begins to change colours, turning yellow or orange, and then fading to a sort of dingy straw colour. The cap is 1 3cm across, convex or bell-shaped, often striate at the margin, covered in greenish gluten especially when young. The Stem is very slimy, with darker greenish blue apex. Grows amongst grass on lawns or heaths, mostly solitary or scattered. In 1762 the German mycologist Jacob Christian Schaeffer described the Parrot Waxcap, giving it the scientific name Agaricus psittacinus. (Most of the gilled mushrooms were included initially in the genus Agaricus!) Its current scientific name was set in 1871 by another German mycologist, Paul Kummer, who transferred this species to the genus

53 53 Hygrocybe; its name then became Hygrocybe psittacina. This nominate form of Hygrocybe psittacina is formally recorded as Hygrocybe psittacina var. psittacina, because another variety has now been recognized. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 337 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: November. 24. Hygrocybe punicea (Fr.) Kummer (Crimson wax cap) Hygrocybe punicea, sometimes called Crimson- or Scarlet Waxy Cap, is a colourful member of the genus Hygrocybe, the wax caps. It is one of our most beautiful and conspicuous waxy caps. Originally described as Hygrophorus puniceus, it is the largest member of the genus. Hygrocybe punicea is one of the common species of Hygrocybe in Kerala. Distinguishing features include the orange red, greasy cap; the narrowly attached gills; and the stringy stem. The cap may be more or less convex when young, but it soon expands to broadly bell-shaped or bluntly conical. The stem is stringy enough that it soon begins to split. This lovely wax cap often occurs in small clusters, and when young it is sometimes covered with a whitish bloom. Initially deep blood red, the caps develop paler patches as they age. Cap is a bell shape and then spread and bulging, smooth and transparent surfaces, purple-red to orange color, the edge is wavy, a stem of yellow orange color with reddish fibers, growing in summer and fall, in meadows and pasture lands. Spore print is white in colour. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 7, 49, 238, 623, 655, 1874, 2035, 2049, 2057, 2865, 2884, 2919, 2941, 2954, 2981, 3279, 4064, 4891, 5290, 5977, 5995, 6063, 6102, 6219, 8750, 10876, 10879, 11132, 11140,11189,12555

54 54 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Agasthyamala, Kulathupuzha; Kollam Dt.: Thenmala; Palakkad Dt.: Silent Valley Season: April-May; June-August 25. Hygrocybe pratensis (Pers.) Murrill (Meadow wax cap/ Buffcap) This waxy cap is less waxy than many others, crucial identifying features include the dry, orangish buff cap that has tiny, pressed-down fibers under the lens and the cream to orangish, fairly distant gills that begin to run down the stem. Hygrocybe pratensis has been shifted between several genera in the waxy cap family over the years. Most recently, David Boertmann (2000) placed it in Hygrocybe but DNA evidence from Moncalvo and others (2002) suggests it may belong at the fringe, or even outside, of a large group of mushrooms containing Omphalina, Arrhenia and the Hygrophoraceae. Meadow Waxcap, Hygrocybe pratensis represents a saprophytic species typically associated with upland grasslands and pastures. The fungus is medium sized and the cap is initially convex in form, flattening with age and may even become concave. It is usually, however, umbonate with an acute margin which is dry, often irregular in form and tends to crack with age. They can grow to 10 cm in diameter with an acute margin. The colour is highly variable, but is most commonly an apricot shade. The gills the same colour as the cap, are thick, distant, very decurrent and waxy in texture. Cross-veins are often seen as wrinkles between the gills. The spore print is white. The stipes are stout, typically paler than the caps, is smooth and narrows towards the base. The flesh of meadow wax cap is thick at the cap centre, straw yellow in colour and moist to the touch. The scent is mildly mushroomy, as is the flavour. Though not commonly known as an edible species, it is worthwhile to collect as it is not readily confused with any poisonous species and its firm

55 55 texture makes it ideal for stewing or long cooking. It does, however, contain a lot of water. This means that it can be fried in its own juices without the need to add butter or oil. As the taste is mild, the addition of garlic and herbs or a little curry powder benefits the flavour. Meadow wax cap often grows in proximity with other highly-coloured wax caps, but none are toxic. The only mushroom with which it can be readily confused is the false morel (Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca) which can cause digestive upsets in some people, particularly if under-cooked, but it is quite uncommon and is not found in Kerala. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): Locality : Wayanad Dst., Muthanga wild life sanctuary Season : November Genus Laccaria Berk. & Br. Laccaria is a genus of white-spored mushrooms with around 75 species found in both temperate and tropical regions of the world. They are mycorrhizal. The cap colours are very variable. For this reason, they are often referred to as Deceivers. The gills are often thick and a little waxy, and are usually purple, pinkish, or flesh-colored. Laccarias are never slimy, which helps in separating them from the waxy caps, and their gills are attached to the stem but do not run down it, helping distinguish them from clitocyboid mushrooms. The cap colors range from whitish to, more commonly, orangish brown or reddish brown while a few species are purple. 26. Laccaria amethystina (Bull.) Murrill (Amethyst Deceiver) Laccaria amethystina, commonly known as the 'Amethyst Deceiver' is a small brightly colored, edible mushroom that grows in deciduous as well as coniferous forests, typically found in scattered troops on the forest floor. The fungus is bright amethyst violet in the

56 56 bud stage but soon fades to become much duller as it ages (hence its common name of 'amethyst deceiver'). The cap can grow up to 5 cm in diameter. Young specimens are a deep purplish lilac colour, but this fades as the fungus dries out and as it ages, becoming browner and paler, but with hints of lilac. When young, the caps are convex, flattening as the mushroom matures and with a slight depression in the centre (this can be scaly). The flesh is quite thin, pale lilac in colour and has no odour and only a very mild taste. Cap is broadly convex to flat; often with a central depression and can grow up to 5 cm in diameter. The margins become wavy and appear striate when moist. The gills are attached to the stem, or rarely running down it, thick and widely spaced, dark purple or colored like the cap.. They are often dusted by white spores. The spore print is white. The stipe is bare and slender and is typically fibrous, conclorous with the cap and can often be twisted or bent, equal or slightly swollen at the base; finely to coarsely hairy or scaly; colored like the cap; with lilac to whitish basal mycelium. The flesh of this fungus is quite thin, pale lilac in colour and has no odour and only a very mild taste. Spore print is white and the spores are 7-10 µm; globose and ornamented with spines. This species is a little more prized than other edible Laccaria species as it adds a pale violet colour to the foods with which it is cooked. Though by no means a gourmet species, they are common and easily collected and the caps are firm, making them excellent for use in soups and stews. This is a good fungus for drying and it can be useful as it lends colours to any dishes made with it. This little mushroom is easily recognized by its thick purple gills, white spore print, and a small cap that is initially purple but soon fades to buff or brownish. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 9099 Locality: Thiruvanathapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: July

57 Laccaria laccata (Scop. ex Fr.) Cooke (The deceiver) Laccaria laccata, commonly known as the deceiver, or waxy laccaria, is a white- spored species of small edible mushroom found throughout Kerala. The hallmarks of this balloonbursting species are its dull orangish brown cap and stem; its thick, flesh-colored gills, and the white mycelium on the base of the stem. It is usually small to medium-sized, relative to other Laccaria species--but it is occasionally large or very small, creating confusion. Under the microscope Laccaria laccata features round spores with spines about 1-2 µ long and 1 µ wide at their bases, four-spored basidia, and scattered bundles of upright elements in its pileipellis. Despite its inclusion in many field guides Laccaria laccata is often fairly difficult to identify without using a microscope, since it is so variable in size The cap is usually cm across, but sometimes larger or smaller; convex, becoming flat and sometimes uplifted; often with a central depression; the margin smooth and even or lined to grooved; bald to finely hairy; orange brown, fading to buff; color often changing markedly as it dries out. Stem is 5 10 cm x 6 10mm, concolorous with the cap, tough and fibrous, often compressed or twisted. Flesh is thin reddish-brown. Taste and smell not distinctive. Gills pinkish, dusted white with spores when mature. Spore print is white and the spores are globose and spiny. Grows in troops in woods. Specimens studied: TBGT(M): 97, 116, 259, 508, 509, 544, 728, 731, 747, 764, 815, 900, 1466, 1628, 1649, 1686, 1832, 1997, 2208, 2413, 2419, 2422, 2510, 2516, 2589, 2590, 2883, 2989, 3014, 3551, 3672, 5364, 6228, 6231, 7200, 7471, 7584, 7711, 7761, 8392, 10108, 10420, 10654, 11297, 11399, 11657, 11785, 11793, 11805, 12007, 1221, , 12856, 12899, 13017, 13101, 13344, 13405, 13436, 13448, 13538, 13648, 13688, 14205, 14211,

58 58 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Kallar; Ernakulam Dt.: Iringole; Idukki Dt.: Munnar, Thodupuzha; Wayanad Dt.: Muthanga, Meppadi, Ponkuzhi; Malappuram Dst.: Nilambur. Season: The species is encountered round the year from January- December. Genus Lacrymaria Patouillard The principle feature of the genus concerns the spore ornamentation: the spores are verrucose, and there is a tendency for the ornamentation to darken more in KOH than does the wall itself. Innately fibrillose cap, fibrillose stem, strongly ornamented spores with a distinct germ-pore; gills often weeping from the production of droplets of a clear liquid; spores discolouring in H2So4 or becoming tinged purple amethyst are characteristic for the genus. The species of Lacrymaria are separated according to the size, and overall colour of the fruit body. The cap cuticle consists of a more or less simple, easily disorganized, layer of pyriform or shperopdeunculate cells. The spores which are strongly verrucose, when mature, the pigmented warts are covered in a hyaline or slightly buff coloured membrane. 28. Lacrymaria velutina (Pers.) Konrad & Maubl (Weeping widow) Lacrymaria velutina is an edible mushroom and is widespread in Europe, N. America and S. Africa. There were some sporadic reports from northern parts of India by Berkely. Velutina means 'velvetty'. This lawn and garden dweller, formerly known as Psathryrella velutina is recognized by its dark, mottled gills, its nearly black spore print, its fibrillose cap, and the ring zone on its stem. Psathyrella velutina was the former name. Recent DNA studies confirmed that, while

59 59 it is closely related to species of Psathyrella, it belongs outside that genus. The unusually large and sturdy fruiting body, fibrillose to fibrillose-scaly cap and stalk without a volva with an obscure superior hairy ring zone or hairy annulus, and blackish brown and warted spores distinguishes this species from closely related Psathyrella species. Lacrymaria velutina is a big thrill for mushroom researchers. It is one of those species with fascinating microscopic features that are not predicted by its drab macro features. The spores are roughened or finely warty, and have little snouts, while the gill faces have cystidia that typically cluster together in groups of three or four. The hairy fibrillose cap of this mushroom is reminiscent of species of Inocybe, which have whitish to light brown gills and pale brown spores. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 4327 Locality: Idukki District: Munnar Tata tea estate Season: June Genus Lentinus Fr. There are 40 species in the genus, which have a widespread distribution, especially in subtropical regions. Apart from the Antartica, the tough, conspicuous basidiomes are to be found growing throughout the world. Although the genus may be occasionally encountered in the temperate regions, it is abundant throughout the tropics where the basidiomes represent a dominant element amongst the agaricoid mycoflora in all types of forest. in many cases the basidiomes are xeromorphic with a tough, firm texture and are long-lived. A number of species are economically important as agents of timber decay, whilst others are widely used for their esculent and supposedly therapeutic properties.

60 Lentinus giganteus Berk (Giant Lentinus) Lentinus giganteus, originally described from Sri Lanka is a widely variable species with relatively large fruiting bodies, saprobic on buried well-rotted wood in the forests. Lentinus giganteus has been treated as a special food in Sri Lanka. In India, L.giganteus is so far known only from Kerala. The species though common in Kerala, is not listed among edible mushrooms and is not consumed by people in any part of Kerala. As part of our investigations on the agaric flora of Kerala, several specimens of Lentinus giganteus were collected and studied. A large fruiting body weighing 2.6 kg was collected in November Edibility of the species was tested and confirmed by the mushroom research team at JNTBGRI. It tastes excellent and is therefore recommended for cultivation as a commercial mushroom. The species was successfully cultured at JNTBGRI and the cultures were handed over to the Directorate of Mushroom Research (DMR), Solan, H.P., for cultivation trials. L.giganteus, one of the larger agaricoid fungi in Kerala is recognized by the dark pileal surface and obconical radicant stipe. L.giganteus is maintained as one widely variable species represented by relatively large fruiting bodies saprobic on buried well-rotted wood in forests. L.giganteus referred to as uru paha in Sri Lanka, is one of the largest edible mushrooms and as noted in Buddhist literature- has been treated as a special food since ancient times. This is also considered edible in China. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 256, 2198, 2365, 2690, 2800, 2916, 2953, 4222, 7356, 8728, 9077, 10513, 10848, 11108, 12446, 12801, 12827, 12926, 13153, 13977, 14122, 14236

61 61 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Kallar, Varkala, Thannimoodu, Jawahar colony, Ammayambalam pacha, Kuklathupuzha; Wayanad District: Perya, Begur Season: April-May; June-September; October November. 30. Lentinus polychrous Lev. This is a large, robust Lentinus species with a short stipe, and frequently growing in dense imbricate clusters on old stumps and fallen trunks in the forest of south-east Asia, but not extending to Australia. The caespitose habit often results in distorted basidiomes with excentric or lateral stipes. It is normally a saprophyte which, according to Bagchree (1960) causes a white rot of both the sap-wood and the heartwood of many trees, including economically important crops of Hevea. Typical basidiomes have a pileal surface resembling a chamois-leather in both colour and texture, which contrasts with dark brown lamellae with a reddish or purplish tint. Although the texture, even in young specimens, is firm and leathery, it is reported as edible (Vidal, 1959; Singer, 1961; Natarajan & Manjula, 1978). Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 1440, 2004 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Ernakulam Dt.: Iringole sacred grove Season: March, August 31. Lentinus sajor-caju Fr. (White-rot fungus) Lentinus sajor-caju is one of the wood decaying fungi and it is also referred to as a white rot fungus. It is known to most indigenous populations in Kerala. It is eaten when young as the mushroom toughens with age. This fungus is found on dead branches but if they appear to sprout out from the soil, it must have come from buried wood. The fruiting body is extremely tough with a well-developed central stalk, there are lamellate gills on lower

62 62 surface. Margins of cap roll under when old and dry. Lentinus sajor-caju is a fairly common fungus of the rainforests after good rain. It can often be seen in troops along fallen logs and up dead trees. The caps are quite large and possibly to around 160 mm in diameter, and being concave, they often hold water. The fungus may not be long lasting and can fall in a couple days but some can last for ages. They start to deteriorate quickly and you will see this in the gills. Lentinus species have very thin gills. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 3010, 5841, 7352, 7735, 9957B, 13385, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt., TBGRI campus; Kollam Dt.: Aryankavu, Cheenikkala Season: May; June- August; September October 32. Lentinus squarrosulus Mont. (The tropical white-rot fungus) Known to most ethnic communities, this fungus is found quite commonly on old stumps and buried roots and is widely used by the tribal and local villagers of Kerala. This is widespread and extremely common palaeotropical species, extending throughout equtorial Africa, south-east Asia, the pacific islands, and Australia even reaching the north-east coast of Queensland, Australia. It is one of the most common macro-fungi of the area, growing in caespitose clusters, usually consisting of 3-6 basidiomes but occasionally a tuft of up to 30 basidiomes may be found. The bsidiome is extremely variable. Typically L.squarrosulus is a white fungus, with white, semi-erect squamules on both the pileal and stipe surfaces; also the crowded lamellae do not have a serrated or denticulate lamellaedge. The spore print has a creamy-yellow colour. They are eaten when young as the fungus becomes tough and leathery when old. Lentinus squarrosulus is a high temperature tolerant white rot fungus found across the world is attracting attention due to its rapid mycelia growth and potential for use in food and biodegradation. Lentinus squarrosulus is

63 63 an edible mushroom commonly found in the wild. It can be used it in the same way as oyster mushroom. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 80, 81, 102, 108, 430, 437, 446, 461, 496, 499, 502, 516, 526, 566, 958, 964, 974, 993, 1003, 1048, 1261, 1403, 1536, 1773, 1793, 1839, 1855, 1942, 2000, 2013, 2181, 2199, 2614, 2787, 2814, 3007, 3024, 3734, 3886, 4436, 6390, 6532, 7020, 7329, 8680, 8798, 8811, 10153, 11835, 13152, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Varkala, Ponmudi; Kollam Dt.: Cheenikkala, Thenmala; Alapuzha Dt.: Kuttanad; Ernakulam Dt.: Iringole sacred grove; Wayanad Dt.: Ponkuzhi. Season: January-March; April-May; June- September; October December. 33. Lentinus strigosus Fr. (Hairy Panus) Strigos- means "having coarse, flattened, rigid hairs or bristles" (strigose) with reference to the hairy caps and stipe of this mushroom. Saprobic, growing solitary but mostly clustered on deciduous logs and stumps. Caps are cm wide, stipes (when present) are 1-2 cm long and cm thick. Fruit-bodies are pinkish-tan to reddish-brown with violet tints when young, becoming tan with age, dry, densely hairy and velvety. Gills are decurrent, white to tan coloured. The stipe is pinkish-brown to tan, densely hairy stubby, lateral to off-center. Veil is absent. The spore print is white. The degree of colour change is remarkable and can occur in the course of a single day. DNA information places this gilled mushroom among the polypores, indicating the independent evolution of gills. This common and widespread species is ofte4n one of the first gilled mushrooms to colonize cut stumps or fallen logs. Though edible, the hairy caps and tough, bitter flesh discourage most mycophagists from experimenting.

64 64 Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 30, 76, 469, 518, 521, 1046, 2001, 2166, 2256, 2519, 7137, 10183, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Kollam Dt.: Cheenikkala, Thenmala Season: February-May; June-July; September-December. 34. Lentinus velutinus Fr. This is one of the common species of Lentinus in Kerala. It is recognized by the elongate, slender, velutinus stipe which often originates from a pseudosclerotium, and the short hispid covering of the pileus. The pseudosclerotium is formed by mycelial ramifications in the dead woody substratum. The fruit bodies become tough and leathery when old. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 30; 76; 469; 518; 521; 1046; 2001; 2166; 2256; 2519; 7137; 10183; Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Kollam Dt.: Cheenikkala, Thenmala Season: February-May, September-December. Genus Lepista (Fr.) W.G. Smith Except as noted, members of the genus Lepista look almost, but not quite like either a Tricholoma or a Clitocybe. That is, cap is fleshy and gills are attached to the fleshy cap, and stem is central and fibrous. There is no ring on the stem. All species grow on the ground, and most species in clusters (caespitose) or densely gregarious in fairy rings. The microscopic description states Lepista contains those species of Tricholomataceae with roughened, colored spores and clamp connections on the hyphae of the fruiting body. Cystidia are absent. Spores are ellipsoid, except when noted and then are globose.

65 Lepista sordida (Fr.) Sing. Lepista sordida is purple all over and is found in small troops under trees and shrubs. Blewits have a strong, almost perfumed mushroom flavour and a soft texture. Lepista sordida, known for its good edible and medicinal use is a valuable fungus and has been brought in great interests of research both in scientific and farming communities. Due to its limited amounts and geographically diversified presence in wildness, it will be significant both in economy and for public use if it could be cultivated in a domestic way with good production and easy operation. It is a common species in TBGRI campus, mostly found growing on rubbish heaps in the dumping yard. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 223; 565; 796; 827; 965; 1655; 1945; 2041; 2853; 2930; 3196; 3223; 3828; 3857; 4993; 5057 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; CPCRI campus, Njakkad; Kollam Dt.: Thenmala Season: April- November. Genus Leucoagaricus (Locq.) Singer The genus contains approximately 90 species. Almost cosmopolitan, but with an outstanding display of forms and individuals in tropical and sub tropical America and Africa. The genus is represented by a relatively small number of species in the northern parts of Europe, where as southern Europe harbours a much greater diversity. More species are represented in the subtropical region than in cool temperate regions, but are absent from arctic and alpine habitats (Vellinga, 2001). Saprophytic and terrestrial, on decaying leaf litter, grassland, cow dung, compost heaps, road sides, flower beds etc.

66 Leucoagaricus hortensis (Murr.) Pegler Following the onslaught of heavy rains, Leucoagaricus hortensis, sprout up amidst the grasses of meadows and pastures. This is a big, fleshy fungus and occurs commonly in man-made habitats - in compost-enriched garden soil and lawns, and grazing pastures. It has a wide tropical and sub-tropical distribution, and in Australia is found in the eastern states, except for cold regions. It is also found in North and South America, Africa, Japan, India and parts of Asia. One of the distinguishing features of this mushroom is its tawnyolive colored cap and light buff stem. An edible species, it possesses a delicate flavor and emits a pleasant aroma. The cap is 5 to 10 cm wide, white to cream, tightly convex at first, widening to broadly convex. It has a distinct yellowish to brownish umbo (central bump on top of cap), and is strongly striated (grooved) on margins. Yellowish to brownish dry scales are present on the cap. The stem is 3 to 7cm tall, perhaps even to 10 cms, and has a movable annulus (fleshy ring). It is hollow, with a swollen base. Flesh is white and thin, and rapidly reddens when cut or bruised - this is an identifying feature of Leucoagaricus hortense. It has a mushroomy smell, white gills, and white spores. This species though edible sometimes causes allergic reactions to some. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 678, 679, 1073, 1152, 1155, 1574, 1692, 1865, 1869, 1885, 2100, 2421, 2426, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: May-August.

67 67 Genus Leucocoprinus Pat. (Dapperlings) The genus is cosmopolitan in distribution. It grows in all continents excluding Antartica. Under natural conditions species of this genus are most frequent in the southern hemisphere. It is widely distributed in the warmer parts of the American continent and common in the tropics of both the hemispheres. Grows in green houses, hot beds, often in plantations of tropical plants, seen solitary to gregarious, sometimes in clumps, saprophytic and terrestrial on compost heaps, more rarely on rotten wood or wood chips, some species in green houses appear indoors with in potted plants. Some members often appear in fairy rings. The genus Leucocoprinus is generally easy to distinguish even macroscopically due to its striate pileal margin and usually slender habit. 37. Leucocoprinus cepaestipes (Sow. ex Fr.) Pat.(Onion stalked Lepiota) Leucocoprinus cepaestipes, is a mushroom that is commonly found in the parks and gardens. It is typically found on wood debris, on cow dung heaps and flower beds in the garden. Important field characters are the typically campanulate, finely-scaled cap with a striate margin, a partial veil which may form a superior annulus or leave fragments on the cap, and the tendency to bruise yellow-brown to brown when handled. The cap is cm broad, at first narrowly ovoid, truncate at the apex, the margin conspicuously pinched to the stipe, in age the cap expanding to hemispheric, campanulate, occasionally broadly convex but seldom plane, a flattened umbo usually apparent at maturity; margin incurved, then decurved, striate, readily splitting, often hung with scattered veil fragments; surface dry, white to cream-colored, the disc smooth, elsewhere initially appressed fibrillose, soon developing small white to cream-colored scales turning buff-brown in age; flesh soft, thin,

68 68 white, unchanging; odor and taste mild. Gills are free, close to crowded, moderately broad, white, becoming pallid to pale buff in age. Stipe is 2-6 cm long, 4-8 mm thick, slender, straight to sinuous, hollow, tapering to enlarged, somewhat bulbous base; surface dry, white, unpolished, discoloring yellowish-brown to brown where handled or weathering so; sparsely pruinose at the apex, otherwise smooth to minutely hairy; flesh white, unchanging; veil white, membranous, fused to the young cap margin, largely free from the stipe even early in development, in age leaving scattered fragments on the pileus, or a partial ring on the upper stipe. The spores are x µm, elliptical, smooth, with an apical pore, weakly to strongly dextrinoid; spore print white. Grows scattered to clustered on cow dung heaps. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 155, 1256, 1656, 1696, 2016, 2146, 2481, 2560, 2682, 2802, 2968, 3109,3142, 3738,3796,4197,5139,5798,5918,7457,9663,12751,12812, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Kulathupuzha, Njakkad, Varkala; Ernakulam Dt.: Iringole sacred grove, Kodanad; Idukki Dt.: Kolani Kavu Season: January, April May; June- September; October-November 38. Leucocoprinus cretaceus (Bull.:Fr.) Locq. This is a beautiful white species, closely related to L.cepaestipes, but lacks the swollen stipe base and the persistant annulus. Medium to large sized fruit bodies, cap covered with irregular floccose evanescent flocci, striate margin, yellowing of the fruit body on bruising and larger spores are the distinguishing characters of L.cretaceus. It is found scattered in Europe and widespread in the tropics (Vellinga, 2001).

69 69 Solitary, in groups or scattered, on compost heaps, cow dung heaps or among grass on the wayside. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 407, 2845, 8552, 8557, 8565, 8593, 9302, 9558 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Perayam, Season: April; October-November. 39. Leucocoprinus meleagris (sow) Locq. Leucocoprinus meleagris is recognized by its caespitose growth form with the development of abundant white mycelial strands arising from the base of the attenuated fusoid stipes, the relatively small size of the fruit bodies with caps dotted with minute blackish brown granular scales, the fugacious annulus, reddening of the fruit body on handling, the flesh becoming lemon-yellow then orange red when cut, the greenish reaction when exposure to fumes of ammonia etc. This is a poorly known species and is edible, edibility of the species is reported by Mondal & Purkayastha (1983). Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 2015, 4043,4597,4848,5260 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Perayam; CPCRI campus, Palode; Alapuzha Dt.: Kuttanad Season: April, July, October-November. Genus Macrocybe Pegler & Lodge Genus Macrocybe has a pantropical distribution. Members of the genus produce large, fleshy fruiting bodies, often found growing in large connate tufts. The large flavourful fruiting bodies of some of the Macrocybe species make them a valuable source of food. But

70 70 it has to be noted that some of them contain toxic cyanide compounds that should be driven off by cooking. Therefore parboiling and thorough cooking is recommended. Members of the genus Macrocybe were formerly placed in Tricholoma. Pegler & coworkers (1998) removed 7 related tropical species from the genus Tricholoma on the basis of morphological and ecological data, considered together with molecular analysis. The new genus Macrocybe was erected to accommodate large, saprotrophic, tricholomatoid, nonmycorrhizal tropical species with abundant clamp-connections. The genus contains seven species, widely distributed in tropical regions. 40. Macrocybe lobayensis (R. Heim) Pegler & Lodge This robust mushroom species may be recognized in the field by its pure white large basidiomata having a strong cyanic smell. The species is harvested and consumed by several indigenous tribes of Kerala. Mushrooms are to be sliced, boiled in water and the water discarded before cooking. The cap is fleshy, convex to applanate, white to cream, occasionally spotted, smooth, cracking with age, margin lobate, inrolled becoming outturned. Stipe is thick, cylindrical or having a swollen base, solid, same colour as cap or ochraceous or pale grey. The gills are adnexed to adnate to sinuate, cream with a pale pink tint, moderately crowded with lamellulae of varying lengths. Flesh is white in colour and firm with a mushroomy odour. Spore print is white. Another closely related species- Macrocybe giganteus Massee, is reported from Kerala. But we have not encountered this species during our studies. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 5094, 5379, 6611, 8837, 9600, 9758, 10245, 10835, 14120

71 71 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Poojappura, Nedumangad; Kollam Dt.: Sankili, Kollayil Season: April-May; June-July; November. 41. Macrocybe titans (H.E. Biglow & Kimbr.) Pegler, Lodge & Nakasone Macrocybe titans is a species growing in grassy areas in tropical and subtropical habitats. The species was originally described as Tricholoma titans from grassy areas in northern Florida. Its defining features include the presence of bent-back scales on the stem, and, under the microscope, the presence of refractive pseudocystidia on the faces of the gills. However, the scales are not always prominent, and the pseudocystidia can be difficult to observe. These giant mushrooms often occur in clusters within the tropics and subtropics of the New World. The large, creams to buff-colored mushrooms were found growing in dense clusters of more than ten fruit bodies. Single caps were cm in diam., and convex with incurving margins. Younger mushrooms had more convex caps than those of older specimens that became flattened with age. The smooth, dry surfaces of the caps were cinnamon-buff in color at the crowns fading to cream toward the margins. The inner flesh of the cap was white. The spore print was creamy white. The stipe was cream to buff, club-shaped, tough and fibrous with bent-back scales and striations that curved around the stipe. The dense clusters of mushrooms were formed by the attachment of individual stipes at the base. Several miniature mushrooms less than 2.5 cm in height were found attached to the base of the clusters. The cream to dull-yellow gills of the mushrooms was wavy, crowded and attached to the stipes. Microscopic observations of the hyphae from the cap showed that clamp connections were present. Clamp connections are diagnostic for the genus Macrocybe.

72 72 Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 277; 2952; 14475; 14484; Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Kollam Dt.: Chithara Season: April-June, September Genus Macrolepiota Singer The genus Macrolepiota (Agaricaceae, Agaricales, Basidiomycota) was established by Singer (1948). Macroscopically, basidiomata of species in this genus are typically big, fleshy, and often with squamules on the pileus; lamellae are white to cream; a prominent annulus is usually present which is often movable. Microscopically, clamp connections are present on the septa of the hyphae in lamellae; basidiospores are thick-walled, relatively big, white to cream when accumulated, and the inner spore-wall is metachromatic in cresyl blue (Singer 1948). Some Macreolepiota species are widespread, and reported from all over the world, others such as M.excoriata are restricted in their area of distribution. Many species occur in man-made habitats, such as gardens, lawns, compost-heaps; others occur in grasslands or open places in the forests. There are striking disparities in the number of species in different areas. Despite the fact that many specie form big, conspicuous basidiocarps, several species are still undescribed (Vellinga2003). Currently, there are about 30 species recognized worldwide (Kirk et al. 2008). 42. Macrolepiota dolichaula (Berk. & Broome) Pegler & R.W. Rayner Macrolepiota dolichaula forms big, whitish basidiocarps with a long stipe and an umbonate pileus with small uplifted squamules on the pileus. Macroscopically, M. dolichaula differs from the other species of Macrolepiota by its relatively big, umbonate pileus with minute, pallid squamules and long slender stipe which sometimes becomes orange at the base when cut. The species was originally described from Sri Lanka and later

73 73 also found in China, east Africa, Australia and Vietnam and northern Thailand. The species is widely used by the indigenous tribes in Kerala. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 528, 842, 1681, 2390, 3221, 5304, 6681 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Bharathanoor, Peringamala Season: February, May-June; August, October. 43. Macrolepiota excoriata (Schaeff.:Fr.) Wasser M. excoriata, prefers habitats such as dry poor meadows and unfertilized cow pastures, and is not found in forests. This species may be confused with M.mastoide which occurs in open forests and parks. The cap is 5-10 cm across, white to cream in colour, conichemispheric when young, later companulate to plano-convex, with an obtuse umbo at the centre, entirely hazel to ochre brown when young, later splitting in to irregular scales and patches revealing the white flesh between them, centre remaining unsplit and brown. The stipe is pale, with a ring, but without any noticeable squamules. Annulus simple, membranous,, margin fringed and brownish, movable when old. Solitary on ground among grass. The species is rare in Kerala. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: Eanikkara Season: June 44. Macrolepiota mastoidea (Fr.) Singer Macrolepiota mastoidea is not easy to separate from similar species with a papillate pileus but can be distinguished by its reddish brown to brown granular scales on a white pileus and the large ellipsoid spores. Chlorophyllum molybdites, the green Lepiota is a toxic

74 74 species resembling M. mastoidea but has reflexed scales and a smooth stipe; its flesh reddens when cut or bruised. Solitary in open grassy areas Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 7842; 9987 Locality: Kollam Dt.: Kulathupuzha, Thenmala Season: September. 45. Macrolepiota procera ( Scop.: Fr.) Sing. (Parasol mushroom) This is one of the largest and best known of the edible fungi. The most outstanding features of the species are the large basidiomes with brown plate-like squamules on the pileus and the stipe with regularly arranged patches of squamules. Macrolepiota procera is considered to be very closely related to M. rachodes (Vitt.) Sing., on account of its robust fruit body and brown scaled pileus, but differs in the scaly stipe, unchanging flesh and larger spores. The name 'parasol' is after the mature specimens, which look just like hige sunshades or parasols. It is one of the best and tastiest of the edible mushrooms, and is quite safe to collect. Scattered on grassy areas Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 4618 Locality: Kollam Dt.: Kulathupuzha Season: December.

75 Macrolepiota rachodes (Vitt.) Sing. (Shaggy parasol) Macrolepiota procera is commonly known as the 'shaggy parasol'. The most striking feature of this species is the large, brown-scaled pileus, reddish brown discolouration of the basidiome and the smooth stipe with a strongly bulbous base. Bhavani devi (1998) has reported this species from Kerala. A typical shaggy parasol is distinguished by the orange to saffron-yellow discolouration of the flesh, uniformly brown pileal surface without any conspicuous contrast between the scales and the background. Surface of the stipe below the annulus is whitish and spotting red-brown to brown when touched, grey to ochrebrown when old, flesh turning orange like the pileal flesh when cut. Annulus is membraneous, cream-white with a hagged margin and is movable. This mushroom is usually free from any insect larvae- unless the specimen is too old for picking. The stem is too tough to be edible, but depending on the stage of growth, the cap can be cooked in many different and delicious ways. Genus Oudemansiella Speg. (Porcelain fungus) According to the Dictionary of the Fungi (2008) the genus contains about 15 species that are widely distributed in tropical and temperate regions. Yang and colleagues (2009) revised the genus describing several new species and several varieties. Oudemansiella sensu stricto accommodates non-hispid species that have sterile lamellar edges with crowded cheilocystidia and clavate to narrowly basidioles in the hymenium. Some species may occasionally be mildly parasitic on trees weakened by other factors. The genus can be separated from all related genera by the fleshy, glutinous basidiomes, voluminous spores and hymeniform epicutis.

76 Oudemansiella canarii (Jungh.) Hoehnel (Tropical porcelain fungus) This pale colored agaric always occurs on dead wood and has a pantropical distribution. When absolutely fresh, the pileus is grey with white to rarely pale grey. The subdistant, pearl white lamellae have fimbriate edges indicating the presence of copious cheilocystidia. The mushroom is widely scattered in the Western Ghats typically in nonectotroph forests. It will form basidiomata in artificial culture. The taste is creamy and quite fungoid, easily chewable. This mushroom is so slimy and thus cannot be cooked without turning itself into a gack. Instead pick only clean mushrooms and extra clean them with a wet paper towel to remove accidental dust, debris etc. Cut it into pieces and add to salads and other fresh dishes. The stem is also delicious! Occurs in tropical and subtropical forest, wood. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 178, 202, 237, 545, 745, 753, 781, 832, 889, 959, 1005, 1367, 1397, 1619, 1841, 2061, 2087, 2097, 2153, 2178, 2212, 2223, 2253, 2298, 2319, 2379, 2415, 2428, 2556, 2569, 2587, 2647, 2703, 2724, 3060, 3281, 3385, 3430, 3949, 4529, 4921, 5204, 5308, 5357, 5490, 5509, 5749, 5807, 5874, 5939, 6081, 6402, 6410, 6504, 6575, 6692, 6986, 7241, 8248, 8774, 9920, 10112, 10607, 11432, 11490, 11635, 11675, 11915, 12316, 12325, 12415, 12525, 12802, 13201, 13245, 13285, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Kallar, Pazhakutty; Kollam Dt.: Thenmala, Achankovil: Ernakulam Dt.: Bhuthathankettu, Mazhuvanoor; Idukki Dt.: Munnar; Wayanad Dt.: Nadavayal Season: April-November.

77 Oudemansiella radicata (Rehl. ex Fr.) Singer (The deep root mushroom) Oudemansiella radicata, commonly known as the deep root mushroom, is a widespread agaric readily identified by its deeply rooted stalk. The stalk or stem is longer than in normal mushrooms. It is one of the distinctive features to help identify this mushroom. There is no volva, veil or ring on the stalk. The upper portion of the stalk is whitish, the lower part colored like the cap. There is occasionally some fine hairiness to the stalk. The cap is brownish, brownish-gray, grayish-brown and or lighter shades of those colors. The cap is initially bell-shaped and then, as it ages, develops an umbo (raised hump) on the surface which is within a depressed area. The surface has a very slippery feeling when wet. The cap margin is often translucent enough to partially see the gills through the skin. One of the other distinctive features is the root at the end of the stalk. The spore print is white. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 1047, 2533, 4134, 4344, 4822, 5078, 5635, 5671, 6985, 10373, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Kollam Dt.: Cheenikkla, Thenmala, Chembotti; Palakkad Dt.: Nellyampathy; Idukki Dt.: Munar, Rajamala; Wayanad Dt.: Meppady Season: June-November. Genus Phlebopus (Heim) Singer The genus has a widespread distribution in subtropical and pantropical regions, and contains 12 species. The species are saprobic, with some possibly able to form mycorrhizae with exotic trees in certain conditions. The genus was originally described as a subgenus of

78 78 Boletus by Roger Heim in 1936, and raised to generic status by Rolf Singer that year (Singer, 1936). The genus name is derived from a Greek word which means "vein" "foot". 49. Phlebopus portentosus (Berk. & Broome) Boedjin (Black bolete) P.portentosus is one of the common edible wild mushrooms of the tropics, especially China and Thailand. It is also known locally as the black bolete because of its dark coloured fruiting body. This large Bolete is distinguished by the olive brown basidiomes, lemon yellow tubes; robust stipe with a swollen base and he yellow flesh staining blue when cut. This is widely collected and appreciated by the local tribes of Kerala. As the hymenophore is slimy it has to be removed before cooking. It is suspected to form ectomycorrhizae with many host trees. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 111; 530; 543; 592; 920; 1096; 1544; 1545; 2010; 2334; 4630; 5734; 8589; 9637; 10157; 10672; 13159; 14439; 14441; Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Nedumangad; Pathanamthitta Dt.: Mavelikkara Season: February-April, June-July, September. Genus Pleurotus (Fr.) Kummer (Oyster mushrooms) Mushrooms with a "pleurotoid" habit grow on wood, have gills, and typically form semicircular or flabelliform caps that are either directly attached to the wood or are attached by means of a rudimentary, lateral stem. They often grow in loose or dense clusters, forming shelf-like groups.

79 79 The common name for this is Oyster mushroom, from the almost stemless, shell-like caps. Some are very good to eat. They grow on wood in clumps. The gills are normally distinctly decurrent, and the sore print is characteristically white in colour. They always grow on wood on nature, usually on dead standing trees or on fallen logs. The common name "oyster mushroom" comes from the white shell-like appearance of the fruiting body, not from the taste. The taste of the oyster mushroom varies from very mild to very strong, sometimes sweet with the smell of anise (licorice). It varies in texture from very soft to very chewy, depending on the age of the fruit body. 50. Pleurotus citrinopileatus Singer (Golden oysters) Pleurotus citrinopileatus, the golden oyster mushroom is one of the most popular wild edible mushrooms. The fruiting bodies of P. citrinopileatus grow in clusters of bright yellow to golden brown caps with a velvety, dry surface texture. Caps range from cm in diameter. The flesh is thin and white, with a mild taste and without a strong smell. Stems are cylindrical, white in color, often curved or bent, and about 2 5 cm x 2 8 mm. The gills are white, closely spaced, and run down the stem. The spores of the golden oyster mushroom are cylindrical or elliptical in shape, smooth, hyaline, inamyloid, and measure µm. Golden oyster mushrooms are cultivated commercially, usually on a medium of grain, straw, or sawdust. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 6878 Kallar Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: Kallar Season: October

80 Pleurotus cystidiosus O.K. Miller Pleurotus cystidiosus was first described by Dr. Orson K. Miller in 1969 from a maple in Indiana. This mushroom and its close allies have a unique biology and are by far the most interesting of all the Oyster mushrooms. The asexual stage appears to be a "contaminant" to most cultivators. In fact, species in this group are dimorphic - having a sexual and asexual life cycle. Pleurotus cystidiosus is characterized by a squamules pileus surface. The cap is 5-10 cm, often imbricate, pale yellow to ochraceous, glabrous, margin undulate. Gills decurrent, pale yellow. Stipe is eccentric, cm, solid, white. Spore elliptic, hyaline, smooth, μm. Grows in clusters on living or dead trees. Specimen studied: TBGT (M): Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: October 52. Pleurotus eous (Berk.) Sacc (Pink Pleurotus) P.eous grows on dead wood either solitary or in tufts. The bright red colour differentiates it from other members of the genus Pleurotus. This is a widely cultivated species. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 706; 783; 953; 1777; 2205; 2246; 3360; 4701; 5245; 5806; 6593; 6749; 7306; 7390; 7713; 7819; 8077; 8163; 8191; 11318; 11939; 12348; 12506; 12805; 12994; 13656; Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Kollam Dt.: Thenmala Season: May-December Locality: Thiruvananthapuram District: TBGRI campus

81 Pleurotus flabellatus (Berk. & Broome) Sacc. (Oyster mushroom) Mushrooms of the genus Pleurotus are found in both tropical and temperate climates throughout the world. Most species of Pleurotus are white-rot fungi on hardwood trees, although some also decay conifer wood. In addition to being saprotrophic, all species of Pleurotus are also nematophagous, catching nematodes by paralyzing them with a toxin. The caps may be laterally attached (with no stem). If there is a stem, it is normally eccentric and the gills are decurrent along it. The term pleurotoid is used for mushrooms having this general shape. The spores are smooth and elongated (described as "cylindrical"). Where hyphae meet, they are joined by clamp connections. Pleurotus is not considered to be a bracket fungus, and most of the species are monomitic (with a soft consistency). Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 363, 438, 498, 519, 522, 525, 535, 571, 935, 1037, 1038, 1075,1082, 1140, 1390, 1404, 1435, 1473, 1501, 1508, 1542, 1555, 1557, 1559, 1569, 1787, 1820, 1922, 1963, 1994, 2098, 2259, 2471, 2548, 4683, 7336, 7343, 7345, 7350, 7353, 8222, 9964, 10158, 10194, 10271, 10296, 12461, 12915, 12938, 12979, 12998, 13006, 13029, 13082, 13104, 13125, 13127, 13141, 13228, 13511, 13543, 13549, 13550, 13900, 13923, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Ex. Colony; Kollam Dt. Cheenikkala, Rosemala; Ernakulum Dt.: Iringole sacred grove; Palakkad Dt.: Nenmara; Malappuram Dt.: Calicut University campus Season: Throughout the year- January-December.

82 Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P. Kumm (Oyster mushroom) This well known mushroom is easily recognized by the way it grows on wood in shelf-like clusters; its relatively large size; its whitish gills that run down a stubby, nearly-absent stem; and its whitish to lilac spore print, has a brownish cap. It is a delicious edible mushroom and grows always on dead hardwood. It can also be easily cultivated on a variety of substrates, so it is making its way onto many supermarket shelves. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: May Genus Pluteus Fr. The mushrooms in Pluteus are wood-rotting saprobes with pink spore prints and gills that are free from the stem. There is no volva, which separates them from Volvariella. The spores, under a microscope, are smooth and round or elliptical-separating them from the spores in Entoloma and related pink-spored genera, which are angular and/or ridged. Worldwide, there are currently over 100 members in the genus Pluteus. 55. Pluteus cervinus (Schaeff. ex Fr.) Kummer (Deer mushroom) Pluteus cervinus commonly known as the deer mushroom is a medium-sized gilled mushroom that grows on wood, usually on fallen logs. Its light brown t dark brown cap is convex and, when fresh, slightly sticky. The streaked looking surface is fairly smooth but on close inspection may be adorned with very tiny, appressed fibers, especially over the center. The gills are free from the stem and are not covered with a partial veil when the

83 83 mushroom is young. They are initially white but turn pink as the mushrooms mature. The well developed central stem lacks a ring and is white but it may have a few tiny brown fibers. It does not bruise blue when handled. There is no sac around the stem s base. The flesh is white and soft and does not change colour when sliced. The odour in most collections is at least faintly reminiscent of radishes. The spore print is flesh-pink. The deer mushroom is a wood rotting saprobe that decomposes the wood of hardwoods and conifers across the continent. It grows alone frequently but is also found growing scattered or gregariously. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 696 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: June Genus Psathyrella (Fr.) Quel Psathyrella is a fairly large genus of saprobic gilled mushrooms with dark spore prints (ranging from brown to black or dark purplish gray), "snap-able" stems, and frequently hygrophanous caps. The gills are neither mottled, nor do they dissolve into black goo when mature. Under the microscope, species of Psathyrella have spores that are brown or dark gray when mounted in KOH and feature smooth walls, as well as an apical pore. The pileipellis is hymeniform or cellular. Identification of Psathyrella species is not easy, and generally requires microscopic work. Crucial macroscopic features include the disposition of the veil remnants, and the size of the mushrooms. Microscopic features include spore morphology and, especially, the morphology of the hymenial cystidia. This genus is represented by 400 species the world over (Kirk et al., 2008). The first report of a gilled mushroom fruiting underwater is Psathyrella aquatica. The name Psathyrella means strawlike or fragile.

84 Psathyrella candolleana (Fries) Maire (Crumble cap mushroom) Psathyrella candolleana is a large mushroom commonly found on lawns or pasture. The colouring varies between white, golden and dark brown, however the shape is consistent: medium sized, conical when young; large, flat and sprawling with maturity. Psathyrella candolleana is recognized by a smooth, yellowish-brown, hygrophanous cap which fades to pale buff, with an appendiculate margin when young and a white, shiny, fragile stipe. More commonly referred to as the Common Crumble cap, Psathyrella candolleana is a very delicate member of the ink cap-related group of fungi. This mushroom occurs in all kinds of woodlands and woodland clearings as well as on timber buried in damp grassland. The cap is thin-fleshed and very crumbly; typically 3 to 6cm in diameter and usually broadly umbonate when fully expanded. Cap colour varies considerably, but is usually brownish when young and fresh becoming much paler at maturity. The gills are adnexed, crowded and initially white, becoming pinky-grey and eventually very dark brown as the spores mature. These fungi do not deliquesce (dissolve) at maturity. The stem is up to 6 cm tall, with a diameter of 3 to 5 mm; white and very brittle. Spore print is very dark brown or black. These mushrooms appear in small groups or occasionally singly on soil in woodland or in well-shaded grassland. Some members of the genus Bolbitius have a similar appearance, but they have free gills, rusty brown or ochre-brown spores, and mostly grow on dung, or manure enriched substrates. Although the flesh of C.candolleana is thin and fragile, it has good flavour. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 6881, 7238, 7259, 10102, 10301, 12790, 12894, and 13659

85 85 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Kallar, Karakulam Perayam; Kollam Dt.: Achankovil Season: May, June, July, August, September, November. 57. Psathryrella spadicea (Schaeff.) Singer (Chestnut brittle stem) This species is not common in Kerala. Most members of this genus have brittle stems, hence the name. This is medium to large mushroom, clustered all around the base of a tree but not directly on wood, absolutely no odor. The cap is dull reddish-brown; the stipe white, quite thick and fibrous. The convex cap is dry, smooth, dull, whitish with brownish disc and immediate margin, drying tan, margin sometimes splitting in several places for short distance, 4-6 cm wide. The stipe is 8 1 cm, thickening slightly toward base, whitish, smooth, shiny, fibrous, firm, splitting when bent, solid, whitish inside, no colour change on bruising. Gills are attached, pale brown darkening to cinnamon brown, close, somewhat wavy, not very wide, edges minutely eroded and paler than faces. Spore print is brown. Spores are 8-9 x 4-5 µm, oblong and smooth. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): Locality: Wayanad Dt.: Muthanga Season: August Genus Russula Pers. ex S.F. Gray The genus Russula includes some very beautiful and interesting species, and a lot of hardto-distinguish species. Russulas are typically fairly large, and they are often brightly colored. The genus may usually be recognized by its brittle character, added to its fleshy

86 86 stem and the fact that the lamellae are usually joined to the stem. Bright clear reds and purplish hues prevail, but several species exhibit a green colour, or an approach to green. The spores are white or yellowish, and the flesh never exudes a milky or coloured juice. About 20 or 30 species can be identified fairly easily--but there are perhaps 750 species worldwide. 58. Russula aciculocystis Kauffman ex Bills & Miller R.aciculocystis is common in the evergreen forests of Kallar during rains. It is found growing in association with evergreen trees like Vateria indica, Myristica malabarica (endemic to Western Ghats) and Calophyllum apetalum. The sticky striate, red cap, white tom pale pink stipe and the spores with a more or less complete reticulum are the distinguishing characters. The cap is cm diam., hemispherical or convex with incurved margin when young, soon broadly convex to plane, finally plano-depressed. Surface is deep red, sticky when wet, translucent-striate at the margin; gills run down the stipe, close to subdistant, forked near stipe, white when young and soon pale buff in colour. Stipe is 3-5 cm long and 8-12 mm broad white to pale pink, smooth. Spore print is brown. Spores are x 5-7 µm, subglobose to broadly ovate with dense conical spines often fused to form short crusts which join to form fine to coarse more or less complete reticulum, amyloid. Single to scattered on soil under Myrstica malabarica, Vateria indica and Calophyllum apetalum. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 4049, 4074, 4076, 4092 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: Kallar Season: August.

87 Russula adusta (Pers. ex Fr.) Fr. (Wine cork brittle gill) This species belongs to the Russula group characterized by blackening all over with age. Within the group of blackening species of Russula, R.adusta is the one whose flesh blackens most slowly and the least strongly and without or only unnoticeably reddening first. This feature together with the generally peculiarly wrinkled surface of the stipe makes this species easy to recognize in the field. Other species in the group have a marked and rapid discolouration of the flesh to red and/or black. The species was found growing in association with native trees like Myrstica malabarica and Hopea parviflora in the Western Ghats. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 4645, 4654, 6132, 6452 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: Kallar Season: April-May, July-August. 60. Russula albonigra (Krombh.) Fr. Russula albonigra is one of those Russulas whose flesh quickly blackens without distinctly reddening beforehand. The flesh of R.albonigra discolours within a few minutes and tastes like menthol. The cap is medium to large sized with a depressed centre, becoming funnel shaped at maturity. The cap is viscid when wet, white soon dark grey to black after bruising or maturity. Gills are white, blackening directly after bruising. The stipe is also white, quickly blackening after bruising. Context or flesh is white, quickly changing to black without any intermittent reddening as observed in some other species of Russula. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: May

88 Russula congoana Pat. This is a small red capped edible species which as red colour on the stipe surface. It grows in both deciduous and evergreen forests. This is an ectomycorrhizal species growing in association with tree species like Pongamia pinnata and Hopea parviflora. The cap is 2-5 cm diam., and uniformly coloured red. Gills are white and the stipe though white has pinkish tinges at the base. Spore print is white and the spores are ornamented. This very striking species can easily be recognized by the carmine red pileus and the heavy ornamentation of the spores. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 10364, 10444, 10628, 10938, 11116, 11142, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Wayanad Dt.: Muthanga; Kollam Dt.: Thenmala. Season: May-July, October. 62. Russula mariae Peck (Purple-bloom Russula) This is one of the easiest Russulas to identify. The purple cap is with a white "bloom" on the surface. It is almost like soap scum that can be wiped off. The stem is white stem, sometimes with a blush of color. The cap is 2-9 cm diam., subglobose at first, then convex with a depressed center, then flat and often wavy, with a sulcate margin. The cap is dry and finely velvety with a powdery whitish bloom, especially when young. It can be very variable in color, traditionally being described as dark purple, it can also be reddishpurple to pinkish and even have olive or yellow tones. The gills are attached, close, sometimes forking; white, quickly turning to cream or yellowish. Stem is tough, finely pruinose cylindrical to tapered downward, up to 6 cm long

89 89 and over 2 cm thick. Spore print is white. Grows on the ground under oaks, growing solitary to gregariously. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 719 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: Kallar Season: May 63. Russula nigricans (Bull.) Fr. (Blackening brittle gill) Russula nigricans, commonly known as the blackening brittle gill or blackening Russula, gained both its common and scientific name from its propensity to turn black from cutting or bruising. Russula nigricans, the blackening brittle gill, is a very variable species in terms of its size, shape and colour: it changes in each of these respects quite markedly as it matures, eventually becoming black all over. The widely-spaced adnate gills are an important identifying feature of this very common member of the Russulaceae, which is frequently confused with other large, pale brittle gills and milk caps. Gills are thick and extremely brittle, straw-coloured at first; the gills soon turn grey and bruise rosy redbrown when damaged. Eventually, like the rest of the fruiting body, the gills turn dull black. The cap is flat to even funnel-shaped in age; often having a sunken center throughout. Surface is smooth, waxy, sometimes tacky; slightly viscid when wet. It has a slight fruity odour and a mild taste becoming hotter after a few moments. The spore print is white in colour. R. nigricans, like other Russula species is ectomycorrhizal; it occurs in both coniferous and broad-leaf woodland. Although considered edible when young, Russula nigricans becomes tough when older and is particularly prone to maggot infection.

90 90 Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 6272 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: July 64. Russula romagnesiana Sing. ex Romagnesi This is a rather large hard fleshed mushroom, common in Western Ghats forests. The cap is cm diam., buff coloured, smooth and glabrous. Gills are white. The stalk is white, thick and hard. Flesh is creamy white, hard, thick but brittle, not staining. The spore print is white and the spores are 6-9 x µm, subglobose to broadly ellipsoid, ornamented. The medium of large, cream coloured cap, growth habit, small spores with a partial reticulum and encrusted hyphae on pileipellis are the diagnostic characters of the species. The species is found growing scattered on ground in large numbers often in large rings under evergreen trees like Vateria indica and Hopea parviflora. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 8057, 8092, 8106, 8606, 9791, 10856, 10865, 10870, 11075, 11131, 11176, 11177, 11216, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: Kallar Season: April-June, September- October. Genus Schizophyllum Fr. ex Fr. Schizophyllum is a widespread genus in the family Schizophyllaceae containing six woodrotting species. This small family includes one of the most widely distributed mushrooms in the world, the pretty 'common split gill'. They and some related mushrooms, have what appear to be gills, but are actually radiating, branching folds or lobes. The genus

91 91 Schizophyllum has a lamellate hymenophore and is traditionally refereed to the Agaricales, although the lamellae are not homologous with those of the true agarics. 65. Schizophyllum commune Fr. (Common split- gill) This species is known as the worlds mostly widely distributed fungus. The fungus has a characteristic split gill appearance on the undersurface. They can be found growing parasitically or saprophytically on many trees. They can be found even on wood-based items such as broom handle, wooden stool and fence; however, the sizes are too small to make it worth collecting. The caespitose bsidiocarps are easily recognized by the leathery, flabelliform caps which are often cleft. Schizophyllum commune is easily recognized by its tiny fruiting bodies lacking stems, and they attach themselves like tiny bracket fungi on the dead wood of deciduous trees, the grayish white, villose upper surface; and the longitudinally divided lamellae becoming revolute in dry weather. The ability to withstand xerophytic conditions allows the species to persist throughout the dry seasons and it is undoubtedly one of the commonest fungi in Kerala. Fruiting Body is 1-5 cm wide; fan-shaped when attached to the side of the log; irregular to shell-shaped when attached above or below; upper surface covered with small hairs, dry, white to grayish or tan; under surface composed of gill-like folds that are split down the middle, whitish to grayish; without a stem; flesh tough, leathery, pallid. Spore Print is White. This small, ashy-grey bracket looks like a polypore but the lower, hymenial surface consists of gills, the latter unusual in that they are split longitudinally. The genus name Schizophyllum, literally means "split leaves" referring to this character. Fruiting bodies are persistent, shriveling in dry weather, but reviving after rains.

92 92 Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 335, 520, 3216, 5144, 5198, 5222, 8101, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Vizhinjam, CPCRI campus, Venjaramoodu; Kannur Dt.: Alakkode; Palakkad Dt.: Silent Valley; Thrissur Dt.: Vazhani Season: February, June-August, October-November. Genus Strobilomyces Berk Strobilomyces is a genus of boletes, with shaggy to scaly, blackish or grayish mushrooms with partial veils and woolly stems, commonly known in English as old man of the woods. Their flesh stains pinkish or orangish red when sliced, and then slowly turns black. Species of Strobilomyces are mycorrhizal. Separating them without using a microscope can be difficult. In some older classification systems it is assigned to a separate family Strobilomycetaceae, but more recent phylogenetic evidence merges it into the larger family Boletaceae (suborder Boletineae). These results corroborate older DNA analyses by K. Høiland (1987), which suggested that Strobilomyces is only distantly related to more familiar boletes such as Suillus, but was in fact more closely related to the Earth Balls (Scleroderma). 66. Strobilomyces floccopus (Fr.) Karsten (Old man of the woods) Strobilomyces floccopus is a medium to large bolete (2-6 inches across) with black spiky scales on its cap. The pore surface starts off lightly colored, but darkens to near black with age. The flesh is white but bruises pinkish-red when first cut and then slowly turns to black. Cap is 5 12cm, smoke-grey with white patches, soon becoming mouse-grey or cigar-brown to olivaceous black covered with large, thick, concolorous wart-like scales some of which overhang the margin giving the cap a ragged appearance. Stem is

93 93 mm x mm, white to mouse-grey above, concolorous with cap below and covered in large scales. Flesh firm, white gradually vinaceous to coral then brown on cutting. Taste and smell not distinctive. Tubes white to grey, coral then red on bruising. Pores large, angular, similarly coloured. Spore print violaceous black. Spores subglobose to broadly ellipsoid with reticulate ornamentation, µm x µm. Habitat broad-leaved or coniferous woods. Season early autumn; rare. Edible when young. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 605, 857, 898, 1093, 2729, 3837, 3969, 4293, 4297, 6016, 6652 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: April, May, June, July, August. Genus Termitomyces Heim Termitomyces is a paleotropical genus intriguing both to mycologists and entomologists. As the name might suggest the species are considered obligate symbionts of termites belonging to the subfamily Macrotermitinae. The Termitomyces mycelium grows on comb-like structures made from faecal pellets. These pellets are made of digested plant material passed quickly through the termite gut. After some weeks the plant material is degraded so much by the fungus, that it is palatable to the termites. This group was created for these fungi by Heim (1941). As there is symbiosis association between the termite and the fungus artificial cultivation becomes difficult. Termitomyces species is a well known edible mushroom in the tropics. These mushrooms typically have a short season, occurring only after heavy rains and grow in contact with termite nests in forest soil. They usually appear between the months of April through October. They are highly perishable, becoming infested with fly and beetle larva. It is reported that Termitomyce species is an important source of enzymes of industrial importance such as

94 94 xylanase, amylase, and cellulose, antioxidant compounds such as polyphenol and vitamin C (Mau et al., 2004), protein ( %) (Ogundana & Fagade, 1982) and immunostimulatory agent (Mondal et al., 2006). There is evidence that the extract can activate splenocytes (Mondal et al., 2006). The unifying characters of the Termitomyces species are the pinkish spores, the termite association and the subterranean elongation of the stipe called a pseudorrhiza, through which the fruit bodies are connected to the comb in the termite nest. Furthermore most of the species have a pronounced umbo or papilla called a perforatorium, which is thought to play a role during the penetration of the soil. Some species are annulate, some not. Some have large velar remains on the cap, others are smooth and viscid. Although the genus covers a wide macro- morphological range, the species are not very distinct microscopically. 14 taxa of Termitomyces were recorded from Kerala (Vrinda et al., 2012). 67. Termitomyces clypeatus R. Heim Termitomyces clypeatus is another termite-fungus, occurring in Kerala. The fruiting body is grayish brown in colour, becoming paler towards the margin with a darker grey colour at the central, sharply raised (spiniform) perforatorium. The cap rarely exceeds 7 cm in diameter. The stipe is usually long and cylindrical and solid, more slender than T. heimii and has a whitish to pale brown colour. Unlike T. heimii they are usually found in smaller clumps and therefore considered rare. It differs from T.striatus by the spiniform perforatorium, and the more often pale cinereous pileal surface. It is widespread throughout south East Asia and equatorial Africa. They grow in caespitose groups on the ground over termite nests. This is not much common in Kerala. The most striking characters of the species are the acutely umbonate, grayish- brown pilei on tall, tough, cylindrical stipes growing in caespitose groups on the ground over termite nests.

95 95 Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 3473 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: August 68. Termitomyces entolomoides Heim T.entolomoides is easily recognized by the bluish violet colour of the pileus and the swollen stipe at ground level. They are found mostly solitary in and around termite mounds. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 3956, 4356, 6011,6622,6877,9884 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Kallar Season: July-August, November. 69. Termitomyces eurrhizus (Berk.) Heim T. eurrhizus represents one of the larger species of Termitomyces, found distributed throughout south-east Asia as well as equatorial and southern Africa. This is widely used as an edible species. The basidiome typically originate from subterranean termitaria and are rarely found growing from termite hills. The species is recognized by its fleshy, grayish-brown pileus with an acutely pointed prforatorium, black pseudorrhiza and a cortinod annulus on the upper stipe. This species is very common in Kerala. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 456, 514, 663, 780, 1210, 1235, 2204, 2240, 2291, 3397, 3408, 3489, 3788, 3922, 3954, 3995, 6038, 6064, 6176, 6181, 6460, 6544, 7243, 7244, 8908, 10014, 10404, 10776, 12663, 13223, 13293, 13353, 13382, 13518, 13674, 13745, 13959, 14018, 14027, 14067, 14138, 14164, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Kollam Dt.: Thenmala; Wayanad Dt.: Ponkuzhi Season: April-July, September.

96 Termitomyces globulus Heim & Gooss. T. globulus is one of the largest species in the gens, and the basidiomata are often seen scattered. It has a more robust stipe than T. striatus together with a less developed perforatorium. The cap reaches up to 20 cm in diam., with the perforatorium scarcely developed or nil. Surface colour is pale ochraceous brown to tawny brown, paler at margin, glabrous and smooth, radially striate. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 646, 3875, 3948, 3951, 7790 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Kollam Dt.: Palaruvi Season: April, July, August. 71. Termitomyces heimii Natarajan Species of the termite-fungus (genus Termitomyces) are a local delicacy and a favourite among all of the indigenous populations in Kerala. The most commonly found species of Termitomyces in Kerala when in season is T. heimii, commonly called perumkala, translated to mean large fungus. The fruiting body is white, large and smooth, often with light scales, and has a grayish umbo at the centre of the pileus or the cap. The stipe which is white is solid, has an annulus and it continues below the ground as a long, smooth, tough and hollow pseudorrhiza, which is attached to a termite mount. As it is not easy to pull out the mushroom while keeping the pseudorrhiza intact, many mushroom pickers are not aware of the relationship of this fungus to termite nests. Termitomyces heimii is usually found in clumps that can reach up to 300 fruiting bodies per day and over three day from one particular site. This is an excellent edible mushroom and taste exceptional. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 252, 982, 989, 2311, 3378, 3387, 3869, 4724, 6103, 7017A, 7204, 7291, 7332, 7635, 11242, 11308, 11327, 12733,

97 97 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Kulathupuzha, Kallar; Kollam Dt.: Achenkovil Season: January, June-July 72. Termitomyces microcarpus (Berk. & Broome) R.Heim Unlike others in the genus, this species has notably small fruiting bodies, at an average of 2-3 cm diameter. The pileus is whitish to pale cream, sometimes streaked with brown, darkening to ochraceous at the centre, with a silky sheen and smooth texture. This small white fungus frequently occurs in swarms over large areas where termites have been active. The development of the fruit body is epigeal or nearly so, growing on the debris of nurseries carried out of the nest and scattered over the neighboring ground by the termites. It differs from other species of Termitomyces by the small size and the absence of a pseudorrhiza or true perforatorium. It is referred to as arikumil in Malayalam. Specimens studied: TBGT (M) : 217, 40,584,673,684,702,930,962,994,1040,1042,1095, 1268,1274,1469,1621,1657,1684,1709,1761,1831,1872,1916,1936,1965,1969,1988, 2134,2148,2167,2200,2216,2554,2592,2598,2617,2785,2891,3108,3118,3127,3135, 3145,3162,3178,3194,3524,3629,3646,3698,3850,3893,3903,3959,3979,4263,4451, 4457,4460,4474,4492,4498,4499,4725. Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Palode, Bonacaud, Kallar; Kollam Dt.: Thenmala, Achenkovil, Cheenikkala; Wayanad Dt.: Wayanad, Thirunelli Season: May-November. 73. Termitomyces microcarpus (Berk. & Broome) Heim f. elongatus Heim This form mainly differs from T. microcarpus in the size, shape and colour of the pileus and also in having a longer stipe. The cap is pure white in Termitomyces microcarpus

98 98 f.elongatus and the fruit bodies are very small when compared to Termitomyces microcarpus. It grows in clusters of several hundreds and is common in the forests of Kerala. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 2528, 2593, 3637, 4458, 4928, 5121, 7385, 7672, 9989, 10590, 10596, 11365, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus, Kallar, Bonacaud; Kollam Dt.: Thenmala Wayanad Dt.: Nadavayal, Thirunelli, Thamarassery; Pathanamthitta Dt.: Kadapra; Palakkad Dt.: Nelliyampathy. Season: May-October. 74. Termitomyces radicatus Natarajan This species was originally described from southern India. T. radicatus is close to T. microcarpus but differs in having a pseudorrhiza. It also resembles T. clypeatus in the grayish brown pileus and dark spiniform perforatorium but is much smaller in size. The presence of dark coloured spiniform perforatorium, a short pseudorrhiza and the absence of pleurocystidia and cheilocystidia differentiate this species from other species. This species alos like many other Termitomyces species occur in abundant quantities. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 4623 Locality: Kollam Dt.: Chembotty Season: December. 75. Termitomyces robustus (Beeli) R. Heim This mushroom is the favorite species used for food by the Yoruba tribe in Nigeria. It appears in the mountainous areas after torrential rains and for several weeks serves as the dominant food for monkeys in the areas. The species can be recognized by its

99 99 obtusely mammillate perforatorium, sclerified disc at the stipe base, glabrous cap and ochraceous gills. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 3993 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: CPCRI campus, Palode. Season: July 76. Termitomyces sagittiformis (Kalchbr. & Cooke) Reid T.sagittiformis is characterized by small sporocarps with acutely umbonate pilei which crack radially forming recurved mustard brown scales over a buffy brown ground and dark coloured pseudorrhiza. T. sagittiformis differs from T. clypeatus, a common edible species of Western Ghats of Kerala with similar appearance, by the less acute apex of its prominent perforatorium and the fusiform stipe with dark coloured pseudorrhiza. T. sagittiformis is a rare fungus hitherto known only from Africa and recently reported by us from Kerala. The fruit bodies may be easily overlooked because of their inconspicuous colour and small size. Specimen studied: TBGT (M): 4005 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: CPCRI campus, Palode Season: July 77. Termitomyces striatus (Beeli) Heim T. striatus is known to be a variable species which is widely distributed throughout the tropics but this si a rare species in Kerala. T. striatus can be distinguished by the medium sized basidiocarps and the striate pileus. It is a very variable species, often developing abnormally. This is known to be variable specie which is widely distributed throughout tropical Africa (Westhuizen & Eicker, 1990). This species is rare in Kerala.

100 100 Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 1020, 1174, 1217, 2085, 2096, 2338, 2852, 3953, 4041, 12862, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: April, June-August. 78. Termitomyces tyleranus Otieno T. tyleranus is a distinctive species having a whitish to cream dry, glabrous pileus with a prominent, pointed, conical, brown perforatorium. This species is very close to T. clypeatus but differs in the pale colouration of the pileus. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 612, 826, 3772, 3913, 4038, 4039, 8275 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Ernakulam Dt.: Thattekkad Season: April, June, July, October. 79. Termitomyces umkowaani (Cooke. & Massee) Reid T. umkowaani is recognized by the greyish yellow pileus with a darker perforatorium, dark coloured pseudorrhiza and ex-annulate stipe. It is closely related to the other two species with dark coloured pseudorrhiza viz., T. eurrhizus and T. globulus but differs in micro characters. T.umkowaani is known to be associated with the common and widely distributed wooddestroying termite, Odontotermes badius. Although this is a widely distributed species in South Africa it is rare in Kerala. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 1202, 1242, 5639, 5688 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus Season: July-August.

101 101 Genus Trogia Fr. The genus Trogia is named after the Swiss mycologist Jacob Trog. The genus has characteristic features which make it easy to recognize. They are often brightly coloured with a funnel shaped cap which is radially fissile and hygrophanous. Gills are always deeply decurrent, very narrow and often forked. Stipe is tough and solid arising from a discoid base. The genus contains about 20 species that are widely distributed in the tropics. 80. Trogia infundibuliformis Berk. & Broome This is a very spectacular fungus, growing in large clusters on fallen twigs and branches on the forest floor, in which the full colour range from almost white to deep brownish orange can be observed. This mushroom normally appears like clusters of translucent pink petals, the fruiting bodies of this mushroom decorate decaying tree branches. It is very common to find the pileus, on expansion, splitting into a number of petal-like lobes or radial segments. The cap is up to 6 cm in diameter and deeply infundibuliform or funnel shaped, soft and flaccid when fresh then drying hard and coriaceous. Gills are deeply decurrent. The flesh is generally less than 1 mm thick at the base, white, soft but tough. Spore print is white in colour. Scattered on dead wood and fallen twigs on the forest floor Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 767, 2247, 7295, 7677, 11333, 11564, 11749, Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.:TBGRI campus, Kallar; Kollam Dt.: Achenkovil, Sasthamnada; Wayanad Dt.: Tirunelli Season: April, June-August.

102 102 Genus Volvariella Speg. (Paddy straw mushroom) Volvariella is a sharply circumscribed group of agaric species characterized macroscopically by possessing deep salmon pink gills and spore prints and as the genus name suggests they have a volva at the stem base. Lamellae are free and the stipe is without an annulus or ring. Some Amanita species are superficially similar, but have white spores and frequently have rings. Volvariella is traditionally viewed as a member of the Pluteaceae, which also includes Pluteus, but contemporary DNA studies (Moncalvo and collaborators, 2002; Matheny and collaborators, 2006) have had mixed results when it comes to supporting this idea, and it appears that further investigation, focused on Volvariella, may be required before we have a sense of whether the genus is supported and where it belongs in the taxonomic scheme of things. 81. Volvariella bombycina (Schaeff.) Singer This is large, firm and fleshy mushroom with a modest but pleasant flavor. It is not common in Kerala. The cap is cm diam., oval at first, nearly flat when mature. The surface is dry, silky and white to yellowish white,. The flesh is thin and white. Gills are free from the stalk, broad and quite crowded together; they are white in young specimens, becoming pink at maturity. There is not partial veil. The stalk is smooth and white, with a thicker base. There is no ring on the stalk, which arises from a deep, thick, membranous, cuplike volva. The spore print is pink to pinkish brown. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): P 490 Locality: Ernakulan Dst.: Kodanad Season: June

103 Volvariella pusilla (Pers.) Singer) This remarkable white species is characterized by small, non-squamulose, striate pileus, glabrous stipe, white volva, oblong spores and terrestrial habitat. As this is a very small species, though edible, is not much valued as food. The cp is less than 2 cm in diameter and is pure white in colour, remaining so or turning pinkish towards margin. Gills are orange white becoming flesh coloured as the spores mature. The stipe and volva are white. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 5627; 6188; 6217; 6260; 6339; 6378; 7173; 7372; 7526; 7849; 8786; 9871; 9972; 11489; Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Kollam Dt.: Thenmala Season: April-September. 83. Volvariella speciosa (Fr.:Fr.) Sing. Though typically an urban mushroom growing in gardens, wood chips, lawns and so on, V. speciosa also grows in the woods. It is an impressive mushroom, frequently stark white and reminiscent of the 'destroying angel', Amanita virosa. It is distinguished from the deadly Amanita, however, by its lack of a ring, its pinkish gills (when mature), and its salmon coloured spore print. Among species of Volvariella, V. speciosa can be distinguished by its large size, white to greyish colours, viscid cap, long stipe, white volva and elongate ellipsoid spores. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 396 Locality: Idukki Dt.: Devikulam Season: May

104 Volvariella terastia (Berk. & Broome) Singer Volvariella terastia is very close to the palaeotropical form of V.volvaceae (Bull.:Fr) Singer, but the subglobose to globose spores of the former are distinctive. Petch (1907) reported it as growing in connate clusters amongst grass but the present collection consists of a solitary specimen found on the ground amongst paddy straw. The cap is up to 5 cm in diameter. Surface is teak brown in colour, with a slightly darker centre and radially arranged silky fibrils, slightly viscid when moist. Gills are free, remote and white when young becoming pale clay pink. The cap is convex and the margins is fissile and fimbriate. The spore print is brick red. The stipe central and solid, white to pale greyish in colour with a basal volva which is fleshy and irregularly lobate. Spores are subglobose to globose, hyaline measuring 6-7 x µm. Specimens studied: V489 (K) Locality: Kozhikode Dt.: Feroke Season: June 85. Volvariella volvaceae (Bull. ex Fr.) Singer (Paddy straw mushroom) Volvariella volvacea is a robust species of the genus, featuring a greyish brown cap that is streaked with silky fibrils. The prominent volva at the base of the stem is brown to nearly blcak. This is the common 'paddy straw mushroom' cultivated commercially on a wide scale in Asian countries, recognized by the robust basidiomes with greyish-brown to blackish brown radially fibrillose cap and brown thick fleshy volva. Worldwide they rank third in consumption, just behind Agaricus bisporus (the common store mushroom) and Lentinus edodes (shiitake). Indeed, straw mushrooms have been used for food in China for

105 105 two thousand years. V.volvacea is the most popular mushroom of China, Japan, Korea, Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand. The climatic conditions in the plains of India are most suitable for commercial cultivation of paddy straw mushrooms. Attempts on the experimental cultivation of paddy straw mushroom were first undertaken in India by the Department of Agriculture, Madras ( ). At present these species are being cultivated in Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Orissa, Punjab, West Bengal and several other places in southern and eastern parts of the country. Specimens studied: TBGT (M): 2850; 2982; 2997; 3463; 3759 Locality: Thiruvananthapuram Dt.: TBGRI campus; Kollam Dt.: Shendurney Season: April-July

106 106 Training in mushroom cultivation Two awareness creation programmes on wild edible mushrooms of Kerala were conducted by the mushroom research team at the Mushroom Research Lab of JNTBGRI in November A team of 35 final year B. Sc students from Govt. college, Karyavattom and another team of 28 B.Sc students from S.N College, Chempazhanthy attended the training programme along with their teachers. Dr. Shibu Varghese made a presentation on 'wild edible mushrooms of Kerala'. The class referred to different aspects such as the common edible mushrooms occurring in the Western Ghats forests of Kerala, different ways to differentiate between the edible mushrooms and their poisonous look-alikes, information on safe gathering, cooking, eating wild mushrooms, nutritional properties of mushrooms etc. Dr. C.K. Pradeep, scientist, JNTBGRI, delivered another lecture on 'cultivation of edible mushrooms'. The class pertained to the common cultivated mushrooms of Kerala, their cultivation techniques, pure culture development, spawn production, medicinal properties of mushrooms and other related aspects. A demonstration class on cultivation of oyster mushrooms was also arranged. Cultivation technology like chemical sterilization technique, pasteurization technique, spawning, harvesting of the crop, post harvest care etc. were demonstrated and discussed in detail. Mr. Vishnu, Mr. Jestin and Mr. Bijeesh, JRFS working on mushrooms, jointly conducted the demonstration classes. After the classes there were live discussions.

107 107 Value addition Wild mushrooms provide the gourmet with marvelous opportunities for culinary experimentation; this is part of the joy of eating wild mushrooms. Most gilled mushrooms, or agarics, are fleshy with high water content. Any recipe that calls for the commercially cultivated button mushroom can be used with practically any wild edible gilled mushroom with superior results. There are many ways to cook mushrooms, but certain mushrooms need special care and attention because different mushrooms have different flavours, different textures and different aromas. Tasty and nutritious wine from wild edible mushrooms Mushrooms produce high quality proteins. This protein is superior to other proteins. Mushrooms contain all the amino acids especially lysine and lunine. Lysine is deficient in cereals and this has to be substituted in the diet of Indian people who are mainly cereal dependent. Mushrooms also contain vitamins, unsaturated fatty acids and minerals. The mineral content of mushrooms exceeds that of fish and meat and is twice that of most of the vegetables. Mushrooms provide high quality protein and low caloric food. Mushrooms are poor in carbohydrate and fats and so is an ideal food for heart and diabetic patients. Mushrooms also lower the plasma cholesterol level. Methodology Trials with different combinations of ingredients were conducted in the laboratory for the preparation of mushroom sweet wine. Wild edible mushroom were used as the main substrate supplemented with Sultanas, sugar, citric acid yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and water. The quality of the wine varied on the species/varieties of mushrooms used. Flavour of the wine also varied according to the species of mushroom used. A mixture of half the quantity of the total sugar used, mushrooms, sultanas, water and yeast was allowed to ferment for 21 days at 28+ or -2 0 C with daily stirring or racking. Caramelized

108 108 sugar was added as a colouring agent. After 21 days the fermented material was strained to a clean container and the remaining sugar was added along with citric acid and allowed to remain undisturbed for another 21 days. After 21 days the wine was decanted and pasteurized at C for 15 minutes. The pasteurized material was bottled, corked and kept for ageing. Ten persons were employed for organoleptic evaluation and their opinion was recorded (maximum 10) Above Satisfactory Good, very good 9.3 -Excellent Results The average rating for mushroom wine was 9.0 and so this falls under the category good, very good. Mushroom wine prepared from wild golden Cantherellae (cantharellus cibarius) was rated as the best. It had an excellent flavor of ripe apricots.

109 109 Results A diverse variety of wild edible fungi are currently available in Kerala forests but only very few of them are consumed by the tribal as well as local communities of Kerala. The gradual loss of traditional knowledge on wild edible fungi is a common phenomenon the world over including India. A documentation of known edible fungi in Kerala was executed. This study has listed 85 taxa of the wild edible mushrooms from Kerala, falling under 25 genera and 13 families. Three promising wild edible species, so far not recorded among the list of Indian edible mushrooms, were collected and studied. These giant mushroom species viz., Lentinus giganteus, Macrocybe lobayensis and Macrocybe titans were successfully cultured and the cultures were handed over to the Directorate of Mushroom research (DMR) Solan, H.P., for further studies. With this as a starting point, it is hoped that more studies will be done on their taxonomic status so that more of the known edible fungi can be correctly identified. Some may perhaps be cultivated on a commercial basis. Conclusion Although mushrooms are eaten on the Indian subcontinent, they do not achieve the dietary prominence observed in the rest of south East Asia. The number of people in India who are interested themselves in the collection of mushrooms for the table is very small compared to those in some European countries. The lack of knowledge in correct identification of the wild edible mushrooms is an underlying factor which has resulted in collections to be made by a very limited and select number of people. This too is a chance occasion, as mushroom gatherers as a profession is non-existent in India, especially in Kerala. In addition, edible mushrooms are viewed only as a vegetable component of one's diet, which can be interchanged by a variety of other easily available vegetables sold in the market or better still, available as home-grown. Mass media reports of deaths or poisonings caused

110 110 by wild mushrooms are another good reason why wild mushrooms are avoided and only the safe, commercial varieties sold in the supermarkets are consumed. Inadvertently, this also contributes to the gradual loss of ethnic knowledge on the correct identification of wild edible fungi. It is evident that a good number of wild mushrooms are collected and consumed by the tribal communities and poor villagers of Kerala. Species of Termitomyces are collected and sold in the village markets of Kerala during the season in large quantities. Harvesting is carried out mainly in the open forests and on the large conical termite mounts in the forest. In Munnar and Kodaikanal Amanita muscaria is collected by the local people and are eaten for their hallucinogenic and euphoric effects. The usual way to consume Fly- Agaric is to dry them and then to swallow them at one gulp, rolled up in to a ball, without chewing them; chewing Fly-Agaric is considered harmful, since it is said to cause digestive disturbances. Sometimes these mushrooms are cooked fresh and eaten like the usual edible mushroom and then have a weaker effect. Ordinarily, one large Fly-Agaric or two small ones are enough to make an enjoyable day. Ingestion of is believed to be lethal amount. Highly sought after mushrooms like Amanita caesarea and Cantharellus cibarius are common and occur in flushes during the rains in forests like Kallar (Thiruvananthapuram Dist.) but the local people are not aware of their occurrence or importance. At present it is difficult to ascertain the exact amount of mushrooms consumed, but there are many important problems for the people who collect fungi for food. There are many poisonous look-alikes of edible mushrooms. Mistakes are being made by those who cannot always differentiate between edible species and their poisonous look-alikes. In those mushrooms where the different kinds are nearly alike in form, there are characters other than mere general form which enable one to tell them apart. These require close observation as well as some experience in judging of the value of such characters

111 111 Kerala is very rich in its mushroom biota. June is the best month for mushrooms and one can expect lots of variety. Some mushrooms can be safely eaten by humans, and for edibility, mushrooms can range from choice to poisonous. Edible species can have similarlooking poisonous species growing nearby or immediately adjacent. Examine each specimen carefully. Discard any specimens that do not appear to be the desired species. Before eating or testing anything, contact a mushroom expert to confirm, the identification of any species that are doubtful. There is still no tried and tested method of identifying poisonous fungi from the edible ones, and this holds true worldwide. Very often too, what is deemed as edible by one community is considered edible by another, The only option left is to know and identify the fungus correctly. Eating wild fungi is an inherited culture, passed on from one generation to another. In the quest for material development today, concomitant with the shrinking forest size followed by the lack of interest in the younger generations, this inherited knowledge is slowly disappearing among the indigenous tribal populations. A variety of dishes were prepared from wild mushrooms and tested in the mushroom lab of JNTBGRI. Mushroom wine was rated as excellent. Moderation in eating any wild mushroom species is advised.

112 112 A few easy-to-cook mushroom recipes As varieties of mushrooms differ in analysis, texture and density of flesh, different methods of cooking five best results. They respond best to simple cooking methods designed to enhance their delicate flavour and aroma. Like all delicately flavoured foods they are spoiled by the addition of strongly flavoured condiments. While cooking mushrooms they should always be kept as closely covered as possible in order to retain the flavour and they should never be subjected to high heat. Subtle in flavour, texture and appearance, mushrooms land themselves to several dishes, some of which are given below. 1. Mushrooms Soup Mushrooms Butter Shallots water/veg. stock Milk Pepper powder Corn flour Salt -100gms - 2 tbsp - 2 tbsp. - 4 cups -3/4 cup -1/4 tsp. - 2 tsp. -to taste Wash the mushrooms, chop them fine, put them in to a saucepan with a table spoon of butter and minced shallots and a cup of water or vegetable stock. Cover the vessel and cook slowly for 20 minutes. In another vessel boil milk and add butter and flour to it. Stir and cook until thick, add cooked mushrooms. Season to taste with salt and pepper. 2. Mushrooms with plain noodles Plain egg noodles Mushrooms Onions, carrots, cabbage Butter Soya sauce Chilly sauce Ginger, garlic crushed Pepper powder Salt- to taste -250 gms gms. -200gms (sliced) -1tbsp -1 tbsp -1 tbsp -1tsp -1 tsp

113 113 Prepare the egg noodles according to package directions. Melt butter in a pan. Sauté ginger, garlic. Slice and sauté mushrooms together with any other ingredients which needs thorough cooking. Add the noodles and fry turning frequently with a spatula. Add the sauces, pepper and salt and serve when a good portion of the noodles are highly browned. This is a substantial dish which can be prepared very quickly. It is open to tremendous variations not only in the types of mushroom that may be used but in other ingredients which can be added. 3. Mushroom Omelette Mushrooms gms Shallots chopped - 2 tbsp Red chilly flakes -1 tsp Pepper powder -1/4 tsp Eggs -2 Oil -2 tbsp Salt to taste Beat the eggs with salt and pepper and keep aside. Chop the mushrooms. Heat 1 tbsp oil in a pan. Add shallots and chilly flakes. Sauté for a minute and then add the mushrooms. When done, remove from the pan and add to the beaten eggs. In another pan heat the remaining oil and make the omelettes. Serve hot with bread. 4. Mushroom Bake Wild mushrooms -250 gms Onion -1 Green chilly -1 Tomato -1 Ginger -1" piece Butter -1 tbsp Pepper powder -1/2 tsp Eggs -2 Milk -1 tsp Salt to taste Coriander leaves

114 114 Finely chop onions, green chilly, coriander leaves, ginger and tomatoes. Combine with all other ingredients. Beat well. Pour in to a microwave safe dish and bake for 2-3 minutes in a microwave oven. Unmold and cut in to pieces. Serve with tomato sauce. 5. Mushrooms with Pasta Pasta Butter Garlic minced Mushrooms Oregano Pepper powder Olive oil Cheese grated Salt to taste - 1 cup cooked as per the package directions - 1 tbsp - 3 cloves - 1 cup sliced - 1 tsp -1/2 tsp - 1 tsp In a flat bottomed pan, melt butter. Add garlic, allow to brown, then add mushrooms, salt and pepper and oregano. Cook until the mushrooms are just tender. Add the olive oil, stir and remove from heat. Garnish with grated cheese. Mix with pasta and enjoy. As this is an Italian dish oregano and olive oil are used. 6. Mushroom Samosa For the filling- Mushrooms gms Onions - 1 big chopped Oil - 2 tbsp Mixed spices - 1 tsp Green chillies - 2 Ginger chopped - 1 tsp Coriander leaves - 1 tbsp chopped Oil - 2 tsp Lemon juice - 1 tsp Salt, pepper Oil for frying For the dough- Flour -225 gms Oil -4 tbsp Water -4 tbsp Salt to taste

115 115 Combine all the dough ingredients and make a stiff dough. Heat oil in a pan and sauté onions. Add the rest of the filling ingredients and cook until the mushrooms are tender. Add lemon juice and chopped coriander leaves and the seasonings. Let it cool. Divide the dough in to small balls, roll out in to circles and cut in to two halve. Moisten the edges and shape in to cones. Fill a teaspoon of the mixture and seal. Fry the samosa in hot oil until golden in colour. Serve hot with tomato sauce or mint chutney. This is a classic Indian snack with a twist. Mushrooms, replace the good old potato filling in this version of the samosa. 7. Mushroom Gheer Mushrooms gms Condensed milk - 1 tin sago gms Butter - 2 tbsp Ghee - 2tbsp. Nuts, kismiss, cardamom powder Chop the mushrooms and blanch them. Sauté the blanched mushrooms in butter. Then add sago (fried in ghee) and the condensed milk. Stir well. when the mixture is thick remove from fire. Add the seasonings. Serve hot or cold. 8. Wild mushroom stew Ingredients: Any wild edible mushroom- 400 gms butter - 4 tbsp onions - 4 chopped sour cream - 250ml butter - 100g plain flour - 2 tbsp salt and freshly-ground black pepper to taste

116 116 Melt the butter in a large frying pan, add the mushrooms and fry until they release their liquid. Drain this mushroom liquid off then transfer the fried mushrooms to a casseroled dish. Wipe the pan clean, add a little more butter, fry the onions for about 8 minutes, or until golden brown. Add the fried mushrooms to the onions and set aside. In your casserole dish, melt the butter. Scatter the flour over the top and stir into the butter until you have a thick stirring consistency. Now beat in the sour cream and stir in the onion and mushroom mixture. Season with salt and black pepper and cook until the sauce is thick and the ingredients are heated through. Serve with bread and green vegetables. 9. Pickled Chantharelles Chanterelles have a subtle flavor and an excellent texture which are at their best when young firm specimens are cooked slowly in moist heat. The flavor of the chanterelle is accentuated by the addition of freshly grated nutmeg. Chanterelles can also be pickled in brine. Salted water is brought to a boil and pickling spices such as peppercorns, mustard seeds, and thyme are added. The mushrooms are then cooked in this solution for 5 10 minutes before being transferred to sterilized bottles along with some of the liquid. Sliced garlic and dill can be added to the bottles for extra flavour. The remaining liquid forms an excellent stock for making soup. When pickled in this way, chanterelles can last from six to twelve months. 10. Chicken sauté with Chanterelles Chicken breasts (boneless, skinned)-3 Chanterelles (Cantharellus cibarius), cleaned and sliced-5-6 mature fruit bodies Onion, minced -1 Garlic cloves, chopped finely-2 Cup chicken stock-1 cup Cup heavy cream -1 cup Freshly grated nutmeg-1/8 teaspoon Butter -1 tsp Oil-1 tsp Salt to taste

117 117 Brown the chicken breasts in the butter and oil. Remove from the pan. Sauté the onion, garlic and chanterelles until the onion is translucent, but has not begun to brown. Add the stock, nutmeg, and reserved chicken. Cover the pan and cook over medium low heat about minutes or until the chicken is done, but not overcooked. Remove the chicken to a heated platter, turn the heat to high, and reduce the sauce to about 1/4 to 1/2 cup. Add salt to taste. Then add the cream, bring to a boil, and reduce the sauce to the desired consistency. Pour the chanterelle sauce over the chicken and serve with a good pasta. 11. Mushroom cutlets Mushrooms -250 gms Onions -1 large chopped Green chillies chopped -1 tbsp Ginger chopped -1 tbsp Garam masala powder -1/4 tsp Coriander leaves chopped -1 tsp Pepper powder -1/2 tsp Salt - to taste Lemon juice -1 tsp Egg - 1 Potatoes boiled and smashed-1 cup Bread crumbs as required Oil for frying Stir-fry onions, green chillies and ginger in 1 tbsp oil. When half done add the mushrooms and stir over high heat to dry off the excess moisture. Add coriander leaves, lemon juice and salt, turn around a few times and put off the flame. When cool mix in the potatoes. Make in to desired shapes. Dips the cutlets in stiffly beaten egg and dust with bread crumbs. Deep fry in hot oil till golden brown. Serve with tomato sauce. 12. Mushroom Pickle in oil Mushrooms Onions Ginger Garlic -300 gms-sliced lengthwise -2 thinly sliced lengthwise -1 tbsp. sliced -1 tbsp-sliced

118 118 Green chillies-10-split lengthwise Turmeric powder-1 tsp Kashmiri red chilly powder-3 tbsp. Curry leaves Mustard-2 tsp Sugar-1 tsp Gingely oil-150 gms Vinegar-75ml Salt For the masala: Ginger- 1 tbsp Garlic-1 tbsp Jeera-2 pinch Mustard-1/4 tsp Fennel- 1/4 tsp (soaked in vinegar) Blanch the mushrooms, drain and keep aside. Sauté onions in hot oil, when half done add sliced ginger, garlic, green chillies and curry leaves. Add the ground masala, chilly & turmeric powder and sauté till the oil separates. Pour in vinegar, add salt and boil. Add blanched mushrooms and cook for a few minutes. Remove from fire and let the mushrooms in vinegar cool down. Sprinkle sugar and mix well. Bottle when cold. Use after a week. Store in cool, dry place. 13. Mushroom white pickle Mushrooms gms Vinegar -75 ml Water -150 ml Green chillies -6 split lengthwise Ginger -1" piece Shallots -50 gms sliced salt to taste Boil and cool the water. Dilute the vinegar with water. Blanch the mushrooms and drain. Mix with vinegar and all other ingredients. Bottle and seal. 14. Mushroom roast Wild mushrooms -200 gms Onion thinly sliced -1

119 119 Ginger chopped -1tsp Garlic chopped -1tsp Cloves -2 Pepper -1/2 tsp Shallots -2 Garlic -2 cloves Big jeera -a pinch Cumin seeds -a pinch Turmeric powder -1/8 tsp Red chilly powder -1/4 tsp Oil -2 tbsp Lemon juice -1/2 tsp Mustard seeds -1/8 tsp Salt -to taste Coriander leaves -a few Grind the spices, powders, shallot and garlic cloves to a smooth paste. Heat 1 tbsp. oil in a non stick pan and splutter the mustard seeds. Add the ground masala and sauté. Add sliced onions, chopped garlic and ginger and fry. When half done, add the mushrooms and salt. Cook on a slow fire until the mixture gets dry. Add the remaining oil and fry the mushrooms well. Add lime juice and serve garnished with coriander leaves on top. 15. Mushroom Ketchup Mushrooms gms Salt - 1 tbsp Boiled water - 2 cups White vinegar -1 cup Shallots -5 Garlic -2 cloves Ground allspice -1/4 tsp Cloves -4 Mace -2 Bay leaves -2 Ginger paste -1/4 tsp Pepper powder-1/2 tsp Wipe mushrooms with a clean damp cloth or brush them clean. Slice them thin. Mix with salt. Cover with a cloth and let them stand for 24 hours tossing occasionally. Remove the mushrooms from the salt water. Strain the liquid and keep aside. Blend the mushrooms to

120 120 a fine paste. Pour the mushroom paste in to a cooking pan. Pour the salt water over it. Grind the shallots and garlic using the vinegar in a blender. Add this puree to the mushroom mixture together with the rest of the vinegar and other spices. Cook the mixture over medium heat. When boiled, lower the heat and simmer uncovered, stirring it often, for an hour or until the tiny fragments of mushrooms are jelly-like and the ketchup is thick. Press the ketchup over a sieve to remove the bay leaves and whole spices, then puree it again in a blender until velvety smooth. Return the ketchup to the pan and bring to a full boil over medium heat, stirring it constantly. Bottle and seal tightly. Pasteurize in boiling water- bath for 15 minutes. Cool and store. This ketchup is a great condiment to serve with meals and chicken.

121 121 References o Bagchee, K. (1960). The fungal disease of Sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.) Part II. secondary parasites of Sal. Indian For. Record (NS). Mycology 1: o Bhavani Devi, S. (1998). Agaricales of Kerala. Frontiers in Mushroom research:63-74 o Heim, R. (1936). Observations sur la flore mycologique malgache. III, Trois bolets gigantesque d'afrique et de Madagascar Observations on the mycological flora of Madagascar. III,. Three giagantic boletes of Africa and Madagascar]. Revue de Mycologie (in French) 1: o Heim, R. (1941). Etudes descriptives et expérimentales sur les agarics termitophiles d'afrique tropicale. Mémoire de l'académie des Sciences, vol. 64, pp o Kirk P. M., Cannon P. F., Minter D.W., Stalpers J. A. (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CABI. p. 489 o Mau, J. L., Chang C. N., Huang, S. J., and C. C. Chen. (2004). Antioxidant properties of methanolic extracts from Grifola frondosa, Morchella esculenta and Termitomyces albuminosus mycelia. Food Chemistry 87(1): o Mondal, Chakraborty, I., Rout, D. and Islam S. S. (2006). Isolation and structural elucidation of a water-soluble polysaccharide (PS-I) of a wild edible mushroom, Termitomyces striatus. Carbohydrate Research 341(7): o Mondal, T and Purkayastha, R. P. (1983). New editions to Indian edible fungi. Indian Phytopathology. 36(4): o Natarajan, K. and Manjula, B (1978).Studies on Lentinus polychrous lev. squarrosulus Mont. Indian Mushroom Science 1: o Ogundana, S. K., and Fagade O. E. (1982). Nutritive value of some Nigerian edible mushrooms, Food Chemistry, vol. 8(4): o Pegler, D. N., Lodge D. J., Nakasone, K. K. (1998). The pantropical genus Macrocybe gen. nov. Mycologia 90 (3):

122 122 o Petch, T. (1907). Revisions of Ceylon fungi. Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Peradeniya 4: o Pradeep, C. K., K. B. Vrinda and Shibu P. Varghese. (2012). Lesser known wild edible mushrooms from Kerala. National Symposium on Frontlines of Microbiological Research: Concepts and Applications, organized by the Indian Mycological Society at Kolkata from Feb.2-4. o Purkayastha, R.P. and Chandra, A. (1974). New species of edible mushroom from India. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc. 62(2): o Purkayastha, R.P. and Chandra, A. (1976). A new technique for in vitro production of Calocybe indica- an edible mushroom of India. The Mushroom Journal 40: 1-2. o Singer, R. (1936). Das System der Agaricales. Annales Mycologici (in German) 34 (4/5): o Singer, R. (1961). Mushrooms and Truffles. Interscience Publishers, INC, New York pp.272. o Van Der Westhuizen G.C.A and Eicker, A. (1990). Species of Termitomyces occurring in South Africa. Mycol. Res. 94 (7): o Vellinga, E.C. (2001). Leucoprinus Pat. Flora Agaricina Neerlandica (Noordeloos, M.E., Kuyper TH. W and Vellinga, E. C. eds., ) A.A Balkema, Lisse, o Vellinga, E.C., De Kok, R.P.J and Bruns, T.D (2003). Phylogeny and taxonomy of Macrolepiota (Agaricaceae). Mycologia 95(3): o Vidal, J. (1959). Les plantes utiles du Laos. Journ. Agaric. Trop. & Bot. Appl. 6: o Vrinda K. B., Pradeep C.K. and Shibu P. Varghese (2012). occurrence of the genus Termitomyces in the western Ghats region of Kerala. National Symposium on Frontlines of Microbiological Research: Concepts and Applications, organized by the Indian Mycological Society at Kolkata from Feb.2-4. o Yang, Z., Zhang, L., Mueller, G. M., Kost, G.W., Rexer, K. H. (2009). A new systematic arrangement of the genus Oudemansiella s. str. (Physalacriaceae, Agaricales). Mycosystema 28 (1): 1 13

123 123 Publications Vrinda, K. B., Pradeep, C.K. and Shibu P Varghese (2012). 'Occurrence of the genus Termitomyces in the Western Ghats region of Kerala'. National symposium on Frontlines of Microbial research: Concepts and Applications, organized by the Indian Mycological Society, Kolkata, at University of Calcutta from 2-4 Feb Pradeep, C.K., Vrinda, K. B. and Shibu P Varghese (2012). 'Diversity of mushrooms in the Wayanad area of Kerala'. National symposium on Frontlines of Microbial research: Concepts and Applications, organized by the Indian Mycological Society, Kolkata, at University of Calcutta from 2-4 Feb Shibu P Varghese, Vrinda, K. B. and Pradeep, C.K. (2012). 'Lesser known edible mushrooms in the Western Ghats region of Kerala'. National symposium on Frontlines of Microbial research: Concepts and Applications, organized by the Indian Mycological Society, Kolkata, at University of Calcutta from 2-4 Feb Shibu P Varghese, Vrinda, K. B. and Pradeep, C.K. (2013). 'Hygrophoraceae, the waxgilled mushroom family'. National Seminar on Current Perspectives of fungi in Health Care and Environment (kavaastha), organized by the Mycological Society of India at Bangalore University from 13-14, March Pradeep, C.K., Vrinda, K. B. and Shibu P Varghese (2013). 'Genus Pluteus (Agaricales) in Kerala State'. National Seminar on Current Perspectives of fungi in Health Care and Environment (kavaastha), organized by the Mycological Society of India at Bangalore University from 13-14, March Vrinda, K. B., Pradeep, C.K. and Shibu P Varghese (2013). 'Lentinus giganteus- a promising wild edible mushroom from Western Ghats of Kerala'. Indian Mushroom Conference 2013, organized by the Mushroom Society of India at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, April, 2013.

124 124 Vrinda, K. B., Pradeep, C.K. and Shibu P Varghese (2014). Notes on three promising wild edible mushrooms from Western Ghats of Kerala'. International Symposium on 'Role of Fungi and Microbes in the 21st Century- A Global Scenario, organized by the Indian Mycological Society, Kolkata at Science City Kolkata from Feb Shibu P Varghese, Vrinda, K. B. and Pradeep, C.K. (2014). 'Agarics on elephant dung from Western Ghats of Kerala'. International Symposium on 'Role of Fungi and Microbes in the 21st Century- A Global Scenario, organized by the Indian Mycological Society, Kolkata at Science City Kolkata from Feb.2014.

125 125

126 126

127 127

128 128

129 129

130 130

131 131

132 132

133 133

134 134