WAGE STRUCTURE OF CASHEW INDUSTRY IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT

Transcription

1 CHAPTER - III WAGE STRUCTURE OF CASHEW INDUSTRY IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT Kanyakumari District, the southern most district of India, with its headquarters at Nagercoil, has an area of 1984 sq.kms. As per the 21 census, its population was 16.69' lakhs with a density of 92 persons per sq.km. The district is situated at the foot of the Western Ghats and is bounded by Tirunelveli District in the north and north east, Kerala State in the north west, Bay of Bengal in the south east, Indian Ocean in the south and the Arabian sea in the west. It is benefitted by the South-west monsoon from June to September and North- East monsoon from October to December. The normal rainfall per annum is 47mm. The economy is predominantly agrarian. For administrative purposes the district is divided into four Taluks viz. Thovalai, Agasteeswaram, Kalkulam and Vilavancode INDUSTRIAL STATUS OF KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT Kanyakumari District does not abound with major industries. At present there are only six large scale units and

2 75 one medium scale unit in the district. The large scale units are the Indian Rare Earths Limited, Manavalakurichi, Borax Morarji Ltd., Shenbagaramanpudur, Vasantham Monofile (P) Ltd., Thammathukonam, Kanam Latex Industries (P) Ltd., Parvathipuram, Nagercoil, Kanyakumari District Co-operative Spinning Mills Limited, Aralvaimozhi and the Nagammal Spinning Mills, Nagercoil. The TAC Floor Company Limited at Ammandivilai is the only medium scale unit. The investment in these industrial units, their line of activity and their employment potentials are summarised in Table 3.1. The scope for the emergence of ancillary industries to these large scale units is rather limited. The TAC Floor Company, Ammandivilai has created some ancillary cottage industries producing two-ply yarn which at present is being brought from Kerala. The district has potential for the starting of industries manufacturing Titanium coated abrasives from the minerals separated by the Indian Rare Earths, Manavalakurichi. In the case of small scale industries too, Kanyakumari District still remains extremely backward. There are at present 2 different types of small-scale industries functioning in 2-21 as shown in Table 3.2.

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4 77 Table 3.2 SMALL-SCALE INDUSTRIAL UNITS IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT DURING THE YEAR 2-21 Si. No. Industry Group No. of Units Wood Based Industries Printing and Paper Industries Engineering Industries Chemical Industry Plastic and Rubber Based Industries Garments & Coir Industries Beverages and Tobacco Product Cotton Textiles Wool and Silk Industry Food Products Cashew Industry Transport Equipment Non-Metallic Mineral Products Basic Metal Product Repairing & Servicing Industries Jute Industry Safety Matches Leather Products Electrical Machinery Miscellaneous Industries Source: Codes for Product-21 -District Industries Centre, Nagercoil

5 78 However, there are certain village industries which have registered rapid growth in the Khadi and Village Industries sector. Some of the prominent and flourishing village industries are palm gur, soap production, village pottery, carpentry and black smithy, fiber extraction, bamboo and rattan works, fruit preservation, village tanneries, village oil ghani, bee-keeping, hand made paper, lime kiln, gur and kandasari and medicinal herb extraction. Like all the other districts in Tamil Nadu, Kanyakumari has a number of industries of art and crafts. Among them, mention could be made of wood carving, art metal wares, temple jewellery, conch, musical instruments, screwpine products, lack works, palm leaf products, korai mat, painting in peepul leaf and doll making. A significant point to remember is that Kanyakumari District is not wanting in basic infrastructural facilities like power, transport, communication, roads, railways, ports, banks, educational and technical institutions and industrial estates. The district has a good network of roads connecting important commercial centres like Marthandam, Colachel, Kottar, Vadasery, Karungal, Mylaudy and Kaliakkavilai. The district is also well connected with other districts and the neighbouring State, Kerala. The broad-gauge railway connects

6 79 the district with Tirunelveli and Trivandrum and other parts of India. There are two industrial estates in Kanyakumari District. The industrial estate at Nagercoil has 18 sheds of which 6 are regular and the remaining being residential-cum-work sheds. The industrial estate at Kappicaud has 15 work sheds, of which there are 1 tiny sheds, 4 regular sheds and one special shed FINANCIAL RESOURCES Apart from the commercial banks which have played a commendable role in the agricultural and industrial development of Kanyakumari District, there are branches of industrial finance institutions such as the Tamil Nadu Industrial Investment Corporation Limited and the Small industries Development Corporation which provide term-loan assistance AREA UNDER CULTIVATION Kanyakumari District is noted for its agriculture. As much as 63 per cent of its total area has been put under agricultural use. A crop. wise distribution of the area under cultivation is given in Table 3.3.

7 It is evident from Table 3.3 that traditional crops such as paddy, coconut, rubber and tapioca are still very popular among farmers. Table 3.3 THE TOTAL AREA OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF CROPS CULTIVATION (IN HECTARES) IN KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT DURING THE YEAR AND 2-21 Items Difference 1. Paddy Coconut Rubber Coco Tea Coffee Aracanut Pepper Jathica Cashewnuts Black Gram Green Gram Mangoes Banana Jack Pine Apple Guava Lemon Cardamom Cloves Source: 'G' Return 141, 2-21 Statistical Officer, Nagercoil, Kanyakumari District.

8 [ TREND OF CASHEW CULTIVATION IN KANYAKUMARI AND OTHER DISTRICTS OF TAMIL NADU The declining trend on the total area under cultivation is peculiar to Kanyakumari District only. In South Arcot, Ramnad, Tanjore and Trichy Districts, the area under cashew cultivation has never suffered any decline. It is evident from Table 3.4 that the declining trend in the area under cultivation is a phenomenon quite peculiar to Kanyakumari District. As stated earlier, this is because of the higher return on the cultivation of other crops. From to 2-21 the area under cashew cultivation has gone down from 285 hectares to 1948 hectares in Kanyakumari District. But in the districts of Chengalput, South Arcot, Trichi, Tanjore, Ramnad and Tirunelveli it has gone up considerably during the year. There are at present 29 districts in Tamil Nadu only some of the important districts where cashew cultivation takes place shown in Table 3.4. The reason attributed to the low profit of the cashew cultivation in Kanyakumari District is that the farmers seldom find it a gainful proposition. The economic return on cashew cultivation is less than any crop.

9 82 Table 3.4 AREA UNDER CASHEW CULTIVATION IN TAMIL NADU FOR THE YEAR Si. J No. Area in Name of the District I Hectares 1. Chingalput South Arcot North Arcot Salem Dharmapuri Trichy Thanjavur Madurai Ramnad Tirunelveli Kanyakumari 285 Total Source: Season and Crop Report of Tamil Nadu, , p.14.

10 [*] 3.5 MIGRATION OF CASHEW INDUSTRY FROM KERALA TO KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT When the cashew industry was organised on the factory basis during 193's there was indeed much difficulty in getting adequate number of workers, especially for shelling which is an unpleasant work in the cashew processing. The disequilibrium between the supply of and demand for labour posed a serious threat to the expansion of the industry. This led the employers to seek the help of agents to recruit labour for the factories. Apart from paying commission and credit to the agents, the cashew processors also provided dwelling facilities to workers so as to ensure regular supply of labour to the factories. The lure of money wages and continuity of employment induced the workers to seek work in the cashew factories. However, during sowing and harvesting seasons they attend to the work in the villages. This has practically resulted in h. 1 igh degree of labour absenteeism affecting the smooth operation of factories in and around Kollam. The labour absenteeism in the cashew industry was aggravated by the fact that women constituted the bulk of the labour force. Absenteeism is generally found high among women and children since they only

11 84 supplement the income of the families. In the subsequent years the difficulty of getting labour was minimised and hence the industry began to get regular supply of workers drawn from the lower middle class families of different castes Conditions of Work in Kerala State Conditions of work in the cashew factories in the early years were deplorably poor. Work used to start at 3 a.m. and go upto 7 p.m. There was no fixity of working hours. The factories were only in the form of worksheds with no permanent structures. Those who were engaged in roasting of raw cashewnuts were not given any protection from burns and accidents. The tools used for roasting and other types of works were primitive. Since the work started at 3 a.m. the workers had to proceed from their homes soon after mid-night. The majority of workers in the cashew industry were women, they were particularly subjected to a greater degree of exploitation. From the very beginning of the industry the employers preferred the payment of wages at week-end on the basis of piece rate. They enjoyed absolute freedom in wage determination. The basic consideration was "how to get the workers and not how much they shall be paid". The prevalence

12 85 of acute poverty created a situation in which employer's freedom in wage determination was bound to increase. The absence of competition on the one hand and the lack of effective trade unionism and government intervention on the other ensured the continuation of this system for a long period. Before the enforcement of the minimum wage,legislation in 1953 the system of wage payment and the level of wages were not subject to any state regulations. While then, some categories of work (shelling and peeling) were paid on a piece-rate basis and some others on a time-rate basis, there was hardly any uniformity in the system and the workers were not sufficiently organised to protect interests. Though trade unions had been registered as early as 194's, they were largely controlled by employers. During this period, the employers used to adopt many devices to exploit labour. Weighing was one method through which the wages of price-rated workers were manipulated. In the case of time-rated workers, the practice of fixing a work load to be completed for the award of wage was used to reduce labour cost. There was no regulation to ensure any uniformity either in the time-rate or in the work load. This

13 system of work load, with all its undesirable effects, existed as recently as 1975, when it was legally banned. Nor did the workers, the large majority of whom were females, have any welfare amenities like creches, social benefits like maternity benefits, sick leave, festival paid holidays, etc. were completely absent. During this period there was no difference between processing in cottages or in factories mainly with regard to wage rates. In the absence of any legislation on wage rates and given the scarcity of employment opportunities the industrialists were assured of ample supply of cheap labour Trade Unions in Cashew Industry and the State Intervention It is popularly believed that under such conditions the labourers united to fight for their rights. "The first trade union exclusively for the cashew industry - Thiruvithancore Kasu Andi Thozhilali Union was registered in 194 by Shri.A.Thangal Kunju Mudaliar a prominent cashew industrialist in Kollam".2 Eventhough this employer sponsored trade union had only a short life, it paved the way for an intensive trade union movement in cashew industry. "It is found that there were 15

14 87 registered trade unions functioning in the industry in the state even in 1952". At present all workers are organised in trade unions and there are five central trade unions functioning in the cashew industry. Not only the number of trade unions increased over time but they also became more powerful and they have waged successfully a number of struggles on a variety of grounds like fixing and revising minimum wages, compensation for unemployment, etc. It was not until 1953 that the state effectively intervened to regulate wages and working conditions in the industry. Even this was not done without considerable struggle by trade unions. Though the Minimum Wages Act came into effect in 1948, the cashew industry was not mentioned in the original schedule of industries. It was only after wide spread strikes and agitations that the cashew industry was included in the schedule in The trade union activity to organise the cashew workers to press for better wage and working conditions began to gather force after independence. The number of disputes and

15 88 man days lost assumed significant dimensions in 1951 and 52. Perhaps this contributed to the appointment of Minimum Wages Committee for cashew industry in In 1952, the Government of Travancore-Cochin by their notification dated 23rd April 1952 appointed a committee under the Chairmanship of Sri. A.P. Udayabhanu, Advocate, Thiruvananthapuram. The committee submitted its report in 1953 and minimum wages for cashew industry came into force for the first time on 3th December, In between 1953 and 196 there was no change in minimum wage legislation. But as the cost of living began to rise in the mid fifties, the agitation by the trade unions intensified. In 1958, there were 19 disputes involving 11, workers; the corresponding figures for the next year were nearly twice that level and 196 witnessed on the all time high level of labour unrest in the industry. On the face of this, the Government appointed the second minimum wages committee for cashew industry in 1959 under the chairmanship of Shri.K.J.Mathew Tharakan. On the basis of the recommendations of this committee, the Government of Kerala revised the rates of minimum wage for cashew workers with effect from 15t" June 196.

16 89 An 'important feature of 196 notifications is that it, for the first time, introduced compensation for changes in cost of hying. Till 196 there was n distinction of earnings as basic wage or Dearness Allowance and hence no adjustments for changes in the cost of living. The increase in the labour cost due to the revision of the minimum wages in 196 induced the factory owners first to shift their processing to "cottages" and later to Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu. The continued agitations of the unions (after 196 when cottage processing became important due to the fixation of minimum wages in factories, the diversion of raw nuts from factories to cottages led to struggles in 1965 and 67 by factory workers and this has resulted in the passing of the unregistered Cashewnut Factories Prohibition Act of 1967 and the revision of minimum wages in 1967) led to the further revision of minimip rages in The factory workers in Kerala did not get the full benefit of this revision because, this together with the passing of the law prohibiting unregistered units in Kerala in the same year only accelerated to shift the industry to Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu.

17 The intensity and magnitude of the shifting of the processing units to Tamil Nadu can be understood from the growth in the number of factories since 1966 (see Table 3.5). Table 3.5 GROWTH IN NUMBER OF CASHEW PROCESSING FACTORY IN KERALA AND TAMIL NADU Number of Factories State Kerala Tamil Nadu Total Source: Economic Review, State Planning Board, Trivandrum It is obvious from Table 3.5 that the growth of factories in Tamil Nadu occurred after 1966, when the minimum wages were revised in It is also worth noting that during the period , the growth of factories in Kerala was almost nil and in 1991 slowly increased. The adverse effects on employment in Kerala were further compounded by shortage of raw nuts. Several factories

18 91 were closed and the state intervened to protect the jobs. of the workers by the taking over of some factories. Even so the total quanthm of work declined and the average duration of employment per worker per year fell steadily. While the unions continued to agitate, they have been unable to check the declining trend in employment and their effective power has been substantially eroded. The latest revision of the minimum wages has taken place in September A distinct feature of 1975 notification is the abolition of work-load system. Wage rates both overall and for different categories of workers were the highest in the factory establishments located in Kollam. On an average a worker employed in this segment got 36 to 37 per cent more than his counterpart in the cottage sector in the same town. The wage rates in the cottage sector, apparently was also subject to wider variation than in the factory sector. However, the cottage worker in Kollam was considerably better paid than the factory worker in Kanyakumari District. LI "The mean wage in cottage processing in Kerala was 54 per cent of that in factory processing and the mean wage in factory processing in Tamil Nadu was only 34 per cent of that of factory processing in Kerala".4

19 The Cashew Industry in Tamil Nadu has still not been brought under the Minimum Wages Act and Factories Act Consequently, not only are the low wage rates but no payments need be made by way of Dearness Allowance, Maternity Benefits, Holiday Wages and other benefits provided by the Act. The main feature of locating or shifting cashew industry from Kerala to Tamil Nadu are low labour cost, no labour legislations and weakness of Trade Union activity. The child labour is available on a large scale in Tamil Nadu unlike in Kerala. It has been estimated that workers below the age of 16 account for about 15 per cent of the work force. Working hours are also long (1 hours or more); and even the bare minimum of amenities available in the factories in Kerala are non-existent in the factories in Tamil Nadu. In fact, "the conditions of work existing at present in the factories in Kanyakumari are as bad as the conditions which prevailed in Kollam in the early stages of the cashew industry during the 193's. Cashewnut processing industry in Kanyakumari District is only 4 years old. The first factory began functioning in 196. When the cashew magnets in Kollam found themselves helpless before the organised and right conscious labourers they searched for safer places where they could make money the

20 easy way. Vilavancode and Kalkulam Taluks, with abundant cheap labour presented a haven for them. The way the first enterprising industrialists minted money there served as an inducement for the rest, resulting in a steady migration of cashewnut from the cashew district of Kollam to that area. Now almost all the licenced factories there are run by such migrated cashew industrialists of Kerala. The exodus of the industrialists has naturally hit the Kerala Cashew Industry hard. Those who chose to stay behind were left without even the raw nuts to provide work for the labourers they had hired. Since the processing charges were cheaper in Kanyakumari District, the industrialists managed to move all the available raw nuts there leaving their brethren in the lurch. Though the Kerala Government has imposed a ban on the movement of nuts from the State, smuggling goes on unabated PRODUCTIVITY IN KERALA In India, the total production of raw cashewnuts has reached an all time high of 1,4, tonnes in 199. The share of Tamil Nadu in India's total production was estimated

21 at 15, tonnes for the factory sector.' But Kanyakumari District could account for only 4,84 tonnes in the same year.6 The average productivity is found to be the highest in Kerala. In 199 the per hectare productivity in Kerala was estimated at 1,122 kilograms of raw nuts. It was five times that of the all India average of 222 kilograms per hectare. In Tamil Nadu the average yield stood at 4 kilograms per hectare for the same year FLOW OF RAW CASHEWNUTS INTO KANYAKUMARI DISTRICT FROM KERALA The local production of raw nuts in Kanyakumari District is quite inadequate for the installed processing capacity. So the industry depends upon imported nuts from abroad and smuggled nuts from other states, particularly from Kerala and Karnataka. Raw cashewnuts are being smuggled to the factories of Kanyakumari District mainly through Maakkottam, Shenkottai and Balaramapuram. Another major centre of smuggling of raw cashewnuts from Kerala to the factories of Kanyakumari District is Panachamoodu, which is the border of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. More than 2 tonnes of raw cashewnuts are being smuggled

22 95 daily through Panachamoodu by head-loads and vehicles.7 People get profit when they bring the cashew to the Tamil.' Nadu border. The raw nuts collected from Ariyancode, Kattakada and Malayinkeezu are brought through head-loads. The cyclists smuggle cashew through the Neyyar dam during summer when there is less water in the dam. They need not fear the check post. The raw nuts collected from Nedumangad, Venjaramoodu, Vidhura and Anchal are smuggled through trucks and cars. These cashews are brought in trucks and jeeps to Vellarada through Mandapathinkadavu, Neyyar Dam Kallikadu and from Vellarada the raw cashewnuts are brought to the factories of Kanyakumari District through Kadukkara, Panacharnoodu, Puliyoorshala, Cheriyakolla, Kannumamoodu and Tholadi PATTERN OF OWNERSHIP OF CASHEW PROCESSING UNITS In Kanyalcumari District out of a total of 35 cashew factories, as many as 35 units are owned and directly administered by entrepreneurs from Kerala and Karnataka. As the cashew processors of Kerala are noted for their traditional skill expertise and experience, they are able to

23 outshine the local producers who are totally new to the industry. Further, in the cashew factories owned or operated by Keralities, the entire administrative staff are from Kerala and they are under the direct control of their headquarters at Kollarn. They do not give out any of their business secrets. The natural corollary of it is that the local cashew producers, unable to cope up with the market pressures, have come forward to lease out their factories to their counter-parts from Kerala Leasing There were 15 local cashew processors with 45 cashew factories in the district. But the survey undertaken in the taluks of Kalkulam and Vilavancode made it evident to the investigator that this number has come down as nine of the local processors have given their factories on lease to processors from Kerala. indirect leasing. There are two kinds of leasing-direct leasing and Direct Leasing Direct leasing is usually resorted to when a cashew factory runs into severe loss. The terms and conditions of

24 97 direct leasing are such that the entire factory is taken over by the lease-holder. In Vilavancode and Kalkulam Taluks the cashew factories are usually taken on lease renewable every year by the Quilon based cashew kernel producers. A consolidated sum of Rs.6 to Rs. 1, is paid to the lessor every month as rent. Appointment of workers and supervisors is made by the lessee. He is not bound by the terms and conditions of the lease to retain those who were already in employment Indirect Leasing Indirect leasing is resorted to during periods when cashew factories meet with problems pertaining to short-supply of raw cashewnuts. If a certain factory has exhausted the entire stock of its raw cashewnuts and it is on the brink of a lay off, it would call upon other cashew factories with very huge stocks of raw cashewnuts, to process their nuts. If this offer is accepted, a cashew factory can keep functioning even during periods when raw cashewnuts are in short supply. When a cashew factory thus undertakes to process the nuts of somebody else, it can avoid or reduce lay off which is one of the major problems in many agro-based industries. This system is known as indirect leasing in the jargon of the cashew

25 ralme PAC industry. During the period when a cashew factory is held on indirect lease, the lessee pays the employees their wages, and he pays the lessor rent for the use of his equipments at the rate of 12 to 18 rupees per bag processed. In another method of indirect leasing, the lessee supplies the raw nuts and pays a sum of Rs.25 per bag on contract basis for processing expenses. This amount is quite attractive to the lessor as it is Rs. 15 to 3 more than what could be expected as returns for a bag of rawnuts processed Cashew Combines Combine is a type of business organisation which had its origin in the U.S.A. The principle involved in forming a combine consists in the opening of numerous factories or processing units by a lone or a group of producers. Combines facilitated the growth of monopolistic trends in the U.S.A. which ultimately led to the enactment of numerous antitrust legislations. The growth of combines in the cashew industry was spearheaded by industrialists namely the Vendor Groups, Rajmohan Cashew (R.M.C.) K.Parameswaran Pillai & Co. (K.P.P.) and the Mudaliar Group. Cashew combines were launched by starting several small-scale units by the same individual or group of entrepreneurs to reap the advantages such as:

26 We WAM 1. getting loans from the same credit institution in different names. 2. deriving all the advantages of industrial units in the small-scale sector. 3. evading the stringent provisions of labour laws and tax laws. 4. establishing monopolistic control over the markets for cashew kernels and 5. keeping the trade secrets of these business groups. As the administrative staff are transferred from one factory to another quite often, they do not get any opportunity to get into contact with the local producers and thereby spread the business secrets or details about the structure and functioning of their business groups. There are three main reasons why business groups prefer Kanyakumari District to establish business combines. They are: 1. The District is quite close to Kerala. This makes the smuggling of raw nuts from Kerala quite easy.

27 1 2. In Kanyakumari District labour is cheap, compared to Kerala. The workers are less militant in forming trade unions. 3. In Kanyakumari District, the cashew industry does not come under the Minimum Wages Act and certain other labour laws. The employees in cashew factories do not claimbur for provident fund, sickness benefits, maternity leave facilities and improved hygenic conditions although they are provided for in the legislations. 4. Finally, the workers are quite skilled for the industry and child labour is also available in plenty NATURE OF EMPLOYMENT AND WAGE STRUCTURE The 35 cashew factories in Kanyakumari District provide employment opportunities to as many as 6, men and women, of different age groups. About 9 per cent of the workers are females. Of this most of them are non-household workers. The nature of employment in the cashew factories is such that it could be brought under six broad categories. They are: 1. Roasters 2. Shellers 3. Peelers 4. Graders 5. Packers and 6. General Administrative Staff

28 Roasters The roasters in a cashew factory are entrusted with the most important task of getting the raw cashewnuts suitably roasted for shelling. Under normal circumstances a cashew factory of average size requires six roasters. These six roasters attend to jobs such as feeding the nuts into the roasting drum, stirring, drum operations, removal of roasted nuts, carrying the roasted nuts to the shelling section and fetching water. They are paid at a flat rate of Rs.81/- per day. In certain factories there are only five roasters. Here each roaster is paid a sum of ten extra and the management gains thirty one rupees altogether. As the roasters usually begin their work as early as 5 a.m. everyday, they are selected mostly from places around the cashew factories. A cashew factory can roast, on an average, of 48 bags of raw nuts per day. Roasting is done in two shifts. Each roaster should roast about eight bags of nuts. When these nuts go through the other stages of processing, the roasters begin their second shift of work. However, the quantum of work done in the two shifts has a tendency to differ in certain factories, although considerable standardisation could be observed.

29 12 In addition to their routine work, they are engaged in loading the processed nuts and unloading the raw nuts. For unloading local nuts they are paid at the rate of two rupee fifty paise per bag. But, when they unload imported nuts, they are paid at the rate of two rupee per bag. Over and above these, they also do the work of checking the shells every evening. This is an extra work and the roasters who do it are paid in kind. The practice in Kanyakumari District is to give each roaster a bag of cashew shells free of cost for a week's checking work. The checking work is undertaken to see if the roasted cashewnuts are purposely or carelessly taken along with the shells Shellers The usual practice in the cashew factory is to employ only women workers in the shelling section. They constitute 44.1 per cent of the total work force. Shelling is usually done with a wooden block. One gentle knock at the ventral side would make the shell covering the kernel to split and go into two halves. A sheller, with ordinary skill, can produce about eight kilograms of kernels a day. However, the quantity of work done depends on the size and nature of nuts. The nuts brought from Kerala are bigger in size when compared

30 13 to the locally available nuts. So one can produce more than 8 kgs, of kernel a day if one is supplied with nuts from Kerala. The shellers are paid according to the piece rate system. They are paid at the rate of 4 rupee and 1 paise for every kilogram of kernels produced. The work done by the shellers is carefully supervised. As the supervisors are mostly from Kerala they see to it that the shellers execute their work with neatness and care Peelers The peelers are employed to remove, with utmost care and dexterity, the husks covering the kernels. Peeling is done 48 hours after the kernels pass through the Bhorma stage. The women workers who are engaged in peeling account for 36.8 per cent of the work force in the cashew factory. They are paid at the rate of 4 rupee and 7 paise per kilogram of kernels peeled Graders Grading is a relatively lighter job. So workers, in the grading section are called 'mekkadu' workers. Payment for them is made on the basis of a 'vela' or a unit of work. The

31 14 graders separate the kernels into more than 18 grades. They constitute 11.3 per cent of total workers in cashew industries Packers The work of filling the processed nuts is being done in a 'consumer centre', if a single proprietor owns more than one factory. The work is done in the same factory, if the proprietor owns only one factory. Some times the processed nuts are sold locally to other industrialists. Tins are used for packing processed nuts. Carbon-di-oxide is filled in the tins before sealing to keep the kernels free from contamination. The tins are carefully packed in cardboard boxes. The packers form 2.64 per cent of the workers in a cashew factory. They are paid at the rate of Rs.81 per day Administrative Staff The administrative staff of a cashew factory include a manager, two clerks, and two or three watchmen. They were found to be those from Kerala. The salary of the manager ranges from Rs.3/- to Rs.4/- But it is Rs.15/- to Rs.25/- for clerks and Rs.12/- to Rs.16/- for supervisor and watchmen per month.

32 GRADING FUNCTIONS OF KERNELS IN CASHEW FACTORIES The cashewnuts are turned into finished products through the process explained in Chapter two. The cashew kernels could be brought under 18 major categories. The out turn in each stage and the method by which the categorisation is done are discussed with the data obtained from the cashew factories through Table 3.6, Table 3.7 and Table 3.8 and 3.9. Table 3.6 OUT TURN IN THE PROCESSING OF 22 BAGS (176 Kg) RAWNUTS (Shelling input 176 Kgs of Rawnuts) Out turn in Kgs. Out turn per bag (8 kgs) in Kgs. Wholes Pieces Perival Rejection Total in Kgs Source: Collected from cashew factories

33 16 Table 3.7 OUTPUT FROM PEELING OF Kgs. OF WHOLES, 18 Kgs. PIECES AND 14.5 Kgs. OF PERJVAL L Different Categories of output Wholes Pieces Pervival 1. White wholes Scorched wholes Brown wholes Puzhukuttu wholes Puzhukuttu Scorched wholes Perival wholes Scorched wholes Total Buds - - Scorched Buds Splits.4.4 Scorched splits Pieces 1..4 Scorched pieces Desert pieces Vellakedu Kattal podi.8 - Gurunna podi.6.2 Gurunnapodi white splits 4.8 Brown pieces - Brown pieces-2.7 Tholipilpodi.1 Perival podi.1 Total (inkgs) Source: Data supplied by the factories

34 LU 4 o o a a a - 4 (N LI) (N (N V I -4 o9 o o o o o ci CJ)rii Co ON- a co I I (N Co (N C) o - CL Co V V V Co V C) c d.,-1 Co Co co V V OV - -' C) O o ) O.-4 CI) CI) CI) CI)P. CI)o I!) Co.O Co (N 17 Co - (N (N - - (N CO O E 1-i -4 Cd Co V 4 Co - V VV p. 4 _.- s-i s-4 V V Co (J U- z Q (N LI) (N I. C; LI) 4 Co Cl)Co Co v v C) E - co V V V -.. V -4 Co op. Co N V o,.4 V M 4 p-4 CL4 C14 - Cd V -4 V 4 4 C.) -4-4 s-i -4 V C C (N C C) 1-4 LI) C (N (N 4) P4 P4 Cd 44 - ; p. V V o ' V o o E- C C (N -'-I -d V -4-I E It C CO U, C C (N I I I.'

35 18 Table 3.9 NET OUT TURN FROM 22 BAGS (176 Kgs) Items 22 Bags Per bag Kg. Kg. Export quality / American quality Wholes Pieces Indian Quality / Local Quality Wholes 7.32 Pieces Rejection Total Source: Prepared from the collected informations Generally 9 percent of the kernels can be produced in wholes, provided there are skilled and efficient workers. The factory which processes 22 bags of raw cashewnuts (176 kg) produces kg. kernels in wholes, 18 kg. in pieces, 14.5 kg. as 'perival' and 3.5 kg. as rejection. Thus a total of kg. of kernels are obtained from 176 kg. of raw nuts. In other words percentage of wholes, 3.53 percentage of pieces, 2.84 percentage of perival and.68 percentage of rejection are obtained in shelling.

36 19 Shelled kernels are sent for peeling after heating in Borma. Usually 18 categories of kernels are obtained in peeling. They are seven types of whole kernels, namely White Wholes (W.W.), Scorched Wholes (S.W), Brown Wholes (B.W), Puzhukuttu Wholes (Puk), Puzhukuttu Scorched Wholes (PUK2), Perival Wholes (P.W) and Scorched Wholes 3 (S.W3). The other eleven categories are Buds (B) Scorched Buds (S.B) Splits (S), Scorched Splits (S.S.), Pieces (P.S.), Scorched Pieces (S.P.), Desert Pieces (D.P), Vellakedu (V.K.), Kattal Podi (K.P.), Gurunnupodi (G.P.) and Gurunnupodi Second (G.P2). While peeling kg kernels obtained in shelling, W.W. 244 Kg., S.W. 12 Kg., B.W. 72 Kg., Puk 42.5 Kg, Puk2 6 Kg., P.W. 2.7 Kg., and S.W3 2.5 Kg. of wholes are obtained. Thus a total of Kg. of wholes are obtained. Apart from the wholes S.B. 8.7 Kg., S..4 Kg., S.S. 7.2 Kg., P.S. 1 Kg., S.P Kg., D.P. 2.2 Kg., V.K. t4 Kg., K.P..8 Kg., G.P..6 Kg. and G Kg. are also obtained. Thus a total of 48.3 Kg. of kernels other than wholes are obtained. While peeling 18 kg. of pieces S.W. 2.6 Kg., S.4 Kg., S. S. 2.8 Kg., P. S..4 Kg., S. S. 2.8 Kg, P. S..4 Kg, S. P. 8.2 Kg, D.P..7 Kg., K.K..6 Kg, G.P..2 Kg. and O.P.2.6 Kg. are obtained. Thus a total of 16.5 Kg. of pieces are obtained. While peeling 14.5 Kg. of perival W.S. 4.8 Kg., D.P..2 Kg. B.P..7 Kg. and B.P Kg., T. P..1 Kg. and PVP.1 Kg. are

37 11 obtained. Thus a total of 13.4 Kg. of perival kernels are obtained. Hence a net out turn of 46.9 Kg. of kernels in different categories are obtained from 22 bags (176 kgs) of nuts. After peeling, the kernels are sent for selection. (Selection is the word used in the industry for grading) kernels are selected as export quality and local quality (Indian Quality). Selection of wholes is done on the basis of counts namely 18, 21, 24, 32, 45 (whole kernels per pound), scorched wholes and scorched small wholes. Under pieces, buds, splits, scorched splits, pieces, scorched pieces, white scorched pieces (W.S.P.) and scorched small pieces (S.S.P.) are obtained. These are exported. Kara Niram (K.N.), Raja Wholes (R.W), Perival Wholes (P.W.), Perival Wholes 2 (P.W2), Scorched Wholes (S.W1), Scorched Wholes 2 (S.W2) and Kuruppal Wholes (K.W.) are the wholes that come under local quality that is not exported. Desert Pieces (D.P.), Brown Pieces (B.P.), Brown Pieces 2 (B.P.2), Scorched Small Pieces, Perival Pieces (P.W.P.), Puzukuttu Pieces (Puk P) Chettu Podi, Cheevu Podi, Kattal Podi, Tholipil, Perival Podi, Gurunnu and Gurunnu 2 are the other items of kernels that come under local quality. Thus from the 46.9 kg. of peeled kernels 2.8 kg. of 21 counts, 87.9 kg. of 24, kg. of 32, 8.9 kg. of 45 and 3.4 kg of S.W. wholes are obtained

38 111 for export. In total kg. of wholes are obtained for export kg. of B, 11.5 kg of S.B., 1.8 kg. of S, 4.7 kg. of S.S., 26.6 kg. of P.S., 8.8 kg. of S.P., 1.7 kg. of W.S.P. and 2.2 kg. of S.S.P. are obtained for export. A total of 88.7 kg. of pieces are produced for export. Under the local quality wholes K.N..2 kg. P.W..7 kg, S.W..5 kg, S.W kg, K.W..2 kg. and thus a total of 7 kg. of wholes come under this quality. 3 Kg. of D.P., 5 Kg. of B.P.,.2 Kg. of B.P. 2, 2 Kg. of S.S.P. 2,.3 kg. of P.W.P. and 2.1 kg. PUKP are obtained as pieces under local quality. Apart from this.4 kg. of Chettupodi 1 kg. of Cheevupodi.8 kg. of Kattal podi,.1 kg. of Tholipil and 12.1 kg. of Perivalpodi are obtained. Thus a total of 14.5 kg. of podi other than wholes and pieces are got under local quality. The table 3.1 shows the count ratio of grades. Table 3.1 SHOWING THE APPROX COUNT RATIO OF GRADES Kilogram Count Ratio of Grades 1 Kg. Wholes Kernels 1 Kg. Wholes Kernels 1 Kg. Wholes Kernels 1 Kg. Wholes Kernels 1 Kg. Wholes Kernels Source: Cashew Export Promotion Council of India, Cochin Export on Directory, p.21, 1999

39 112 To summarise, after processing 176 kg. (22 bags) of raw nuts, kg. of export quality wholes, (American Quality) 88.7 kg. of export quality pieces, 7 kg. of Indian quality wholes and 12.6 kg. of Indian quality pieces are produced. In addition to this, there is 14.5 kg. of kernels which come under the rejected category. In a nut shell, a bag of 8 kg. of raw nuts produces 2.29 kg. of processed kernels. This clearly shows that the net out turn is 25% of the total quantity processed. The act prescribes 33 different grades of cashew kernels. But only 26 grades are commercially available and exported in the structure.

40 113 References 1. Population Census-21, Kanyakumari District, Statistical Office, Nagercoil. 2. Report of the Commission for Enquiry into the Cashew Industry, 197, Appukuttan Nair, D, Chief Engineer, PHED, Thiruvananthapuram. 3. Report of the Travancore-Cochin Minimum Wages Committee for Cashew Industry, Kannan, K.P. Cashew Development in India - Potentialities and Constrains, Agricole Publishing Academy, New Delhi, 1983, p "Seasons and Crop Report of Tamil Nadu for Agriculture" issued by the Commissioner of Statistics, Government of Tamil Nadu, Profile of Kanyakumari District, Cropping Pattern District Industries Centre, Nagercoil, "Malayala Manorama" Daily, February 17, 199, p.3.