EL SEGUNDO MIDDLE SCHOOL UNIT 1: EARLY HUMANS. Individuals and Societies Year 1

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1 EL SEGUNDO MIDDLE SCHOOL UNIT 1: EARLY HUMANS Individuals and Societies Year 1

2 CHAPTER 1 INVESTIGATING THE PAST Essential Question: How do social scientists interpret the past?

3 Setting The Stage Our study of the ancient world begins with a look at the roots of human life and the beginnings of civilization. Many scientists believe that the earliest ancestors of humans first appeared in eastern Africa. Scientists have studied fossils and bones left by these early humans. This evidence has led scientists to believe that five major groups of early humans developed over millions of years. The places where the remains of these groups were discovered are shown on the map on the opposite page. From these beginnings, humans spread to other parts of the world. Over time, these early people learned to grow crops. The first human settlements grew in regions where people found the resources they needed to survive. One of these regions, in North Africa, is mostly desert. Through the desert flows the Nile River - the longest river in the world. The Nile had an enormous impact on the development of civilization. The Nile River begins in East Africa. The river flows north and empties into the Mediterranean Sea. Along the way, the Nile picks up lots of rich, dark soil. Each year, the river overflows its banks, flooding the land around it. Beginning in ancient times, the floodwaters left behind soil that was perfect for growing crops. This factor greatly influenced early human settlement in the Nile River valley. Another region in which ancient people settled was in an area of land stretching from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea. This region is known as the Fertile Crescent because of its rich (fertile) soil and its curved (crescent) shape when drawn on a map. Ancient people living in the Fertile Crescent were able to grow plenty of wheat and barley. No longer needing to move constantly in search of food, people could settle down and build communities. Permanent shelters and a dependable food supply allowed people to advance in important ways. They learned to make stone and metal tools; to raise animals such as cows, sheep, and pigs; and to develop a system of writing. In time, settlements began trading with nearby groups. An exchange of people, goods, and ideas blossomed. The first civilizations had begun. Cradles of Civilization in North Africa & the Middle East Click on the image above to zoom in. 2

4 Early Human Fossil Finds Click on the image above to zoom in. 3

5 SECTION 1 Introduction OBJECTIVES Describe the hunter-gather societies, including the development of tools and the use of fire. Welcome to the world of ancient history. Studying history involves investigating what happened in the past and why. Ancient history concerns the distant past, from the earliest humans through the first great civilizations. How can we learn about events that happened so long ago? People who study history are a lot like detectives conducting an investigation. They ask questions, study the evidence for clues, and form hypotheses (educated guesses). Our investigation of the ancient past starts near the very beginning of human history. What was life like long, long ago? One amazing clue about life long ago was discovered at Lascaux (lah-skoh), France, by four teenagers. On September 12, 1940, the boys found a cave. Covering the walls and ceiling of the cave were paintings of animals. The paintings seemed very old. Who had created them? What did they mean? How would you solve a mystery like this one? The clues are centuries old, and the witnesses are long gone. You might need the help of an expert detective, but who would that be? In this chapter, you ll meet three kinds of experts who study the past. Then you ll look at some fascinating examples of cave art to see what this evidence can teach us about life long ago. 4

6 Movie 1.1 The Paleolithic Painted Cave of Lascaux Prehistoric paintings of bulls were found in a cave in Lascaux, France. 5

7 What important discovery did four teenagers make at Lascaux, France, in 1940? A. clay sculptures of an army of soldiers B. a cave filled with paintings of animals C. the stone wall of an ancient storage shed D. a wooden stick used for throwing a spear Check Answer 6

8 SECTION 2 Detectives Who Study The Past Scholars who study human society are called social scientists. Many social scientists can help us study the past. Among these history detectives are archaeologists, historians, and geographers. Archaeologists: Digging Up the Past Archaeologists study the past by examining objects that people have left behind. These artifacts are anything made or used by humans, such as clothing, tools, weapons, and coins. When archaeologists discover a place that has artifacts, they ask questions like these: Who lived in this place? When did they live here? What were they like? Then archaeologists study the artifacts for clues. Movie 1.2 Bill Nye the Science Guy: Archaeology Archaeologists look for artifacts to learn about the past. 7

9 Historians: Recording the Past Historians are the recorders of the past. Human beings have been around for such a long time that historians tend to focus mostly on the last few thousand years, when people began leaving written records. Historians want to answer this question: What happened in the past? To find out, they study all kinds of artifacts and documents. They read diaries and letters. Besides asking what happened in the past, historians try to understand why events happened the way they did. Why do historians read diaries and letters from the past? Geographers: Mapping the Past Geographers study the natural features of Earth, such as water, landforms, plants, and animals. Geographers also look at human-made features, such as towns, roads, bridges, and dams. These scientists help us answer such questions as: Where did people live? How did they use their environment to survive? Geographers often create maps to show what they have learned. Social scientists who study prehistoric history face a unique challenge a lack of evidence from this period. In fact, huge gaps of time have no evidence at all. Therefore, scientists may come up with different answers or theories about how humans came to be. A. to agree on plans for the future B. to compare their ideas of history C. to learn to speak an ancient language D. to find out what happened and why Check Answer 8

10 SECTION 3 Cave Art: Treasures of the Past Cave paintings like those at Lascaux, France, provide clues about what life was like in prehistoric times, before writing was invented. Caves with paintings thousands of years old have been found all over the world. Some paintings show what kinds of animals roamed the Earth and what methods people used to hunt them. Often, the paintings offer hints about people s beliefs. Many of the rooms decorated with paintings are deep inside the caves. Scientists guess that cave artists used torches to work in these dark places.some paintings are very large in size and taller than a person s height. Some paintings are found on high ceilings. Scientists guess that prehistoric artists built scaffolding, or planks raised above the floor, to reach the highest places. Caves have also provided clues in the form of artifacts. Scientists have found bits of rope, lamps for burning animal fat, and tools for painting and engraving. Cave paintings and artifacts are amazing treasures that can help answer many questions about how humans lived in ancient times. But, as you will see, these treasures also raise new questions for scientists to puzzle over. A prehistoric object is one that comes from a time... A. before history was written. B. before people lived in cities. C. before humans hunted animals. D. before electricity was developed. Check Answer Movie 1.3 Mystery of Cave Art 9

11 SECTION 4 Cave Painting of a Human This painting was found inside the cave at Lascaux, France. It was painted between 11,000 and 18,000 years ago. The painting shows a scene from a hunt. The man is about to be gored (pierced by the horn of an animal). The animal, a woolly mammoth or a bison (a kind of buffalo), is wounded. There is a spear in its side, and the animal s insides spill to the ground. The man lies in front of the wounded animal. He wears a mask that looks like a bird. Next to the man is a long stick with a bird on top. The stick is probably a spear thrower, a kind of handle used to hurl a spear. This hunting scene may show items used in special ceremonies. Notice the man s bird mask and the bird on top of the stick. Paintings of humans are rare in cave art. Notice the simple drawing of the man, like a stick figure. The animal is much more realistic. Many social scientists think that this painting was created as part of a hunting ritual. The artist may have been asking for a successful hunt. It is also possible that the painting is a record of an actual event, or it may simply be a decoration. 10

12 SECTION 5 Cave Painting of Animals This image is a copy of one found at Lascaux. The real painting lies in a part of the cave that has been closed to protect the art. The painting was created about 17,000 years ago. It shows many prehistoric animals, such as bulls, bison, and horses. Look at the bull in the center of this painting. Do you see how the neck stretches out, as though the bull were running away? The painters used the cave s uneven walls as part of their composition. At the lower left, a ledge juts out from the wall. The artists painted the horses to look as though they were running along it. Scientists have many ideas about why animal paintings were created. One idea is that the artists were trying to capture the magical powers of certain animals. Another idea is that the painters believed in the spirit world and were creating art to honor or influence their gods. Some scientists speculate that caves were places of worship and that paintings were used in rituals or ceremonies. 11

13 SECTION 6 Cave Painting of Shapes and Handprints This painting (previous page) is in a cave in Argentina, South America. It shows a circular shape, a sticklike animal, and several handprints. The handprints seen in this cave painting are very small. Prehistoric people were probably smaller in size than people are today. Paintings of shapes and handprints are fairly common in cave art. Their meaning, though, is a bit of a mystery. Many scientists believe that handprints were a way for artists to sign their paintings. Some scientists think that geometric shapes had special meanings in rituals. Researchers tried singing inside one painted cave in France. They discovered that the sound was loudest in the painted areas. Their guess is that those areas were used for special gatherings. 12

14 SECTION 7 Spear Thrower A prehistoric spear thrower was found in France. Made from a reindeer antler bone, it measures 10 inches long. It was probably made about 18,000 years ago. The spear thrower has a leaping horse carved into the top. The artist engraved, or carved, hundreds of tiny dashes to show details in the horse s head. The artist must have cared a great deal about decorating this important hunting tool. Some scientists believe that the artist carved the horse for decoration. But the carving may have been a good-luck charm to protect the hunter or make him or her more successful. It may have had some relation to the hunter s name. Or it may have been a way of identifying the clan that the hunter belonged to. The horse carved on this spear thrower looks full of energy. 13

15 SECTION 8 Clay Sculptures These clay sculptures may offer clues about the people who made them and their reasons for creating them. Clay sculptures of two bison were found in a low room, deep inside a cave in France. They were made about 10,000 to 14,000 years ago. They measure 23 inches in length.the artist sculpted them from gold-colored clay. Carved lines show details such as the animals faces, coat markings, and the fringe of fur below their powerful necks. Scientists have two main ideas about why these sculptures were created. One idea is that the sculptures were a sign that the cave belonged to a certain clan. The other idea is that the sculptures were used in an important ceremony held deep inside the cave. Perhaps it was a coming-of-age ceremony to show that a person had passed from childhood to adulthood. One clue that supports this idea is that footprints of young people have been found near the sculptures. About how long ago were the objects and art described in this chapter created? A. About years ago B. About 2,000 3,000 years ago C. About 10,000 18,000 years ago D. About 2 to 3 million years ago Check Answer 14

16 SECTION 9 Cave Art Tools Prehistoric materials and tools include colored, rock-hard minerals and a grindstone used for grinding the minerals. Other tools include a sculptor s pick and an engraving tool. Cave artists used tools made of sharpened stones to grind minerals for paints and to sculpt and engrave objects and cave walls. Scientists study tools like these and try to guess how they were used. For example, scientists believe that cave artists made paints by grinding colored minerals into powder.they probably mixed the powder with animal fat or vegetable oil to create various colors. You ve already seen how prehistoric artists engraved some of their art. For painting, they may have used brushes made of moss, fur, or human hair. They may even have blown paint through hollow bird bones to create softer textures, such as shaggy winter coats on horses. 15

17 SECTION 10 LEARNING TARGETS Describe the hunter-gather societies, including the development of tools and the use of fire. Chapter 1 Summary In this chapter, you ve learned how social scientists investigate the past by using clues they find to form hypotheses. Detectives Who Study the Past Social scientists might be archaeologists who examine artifacts that people have made and left behind, historians who study the written records that people began to leave in the last few thousand years, or geographers who look at the natural and human-made features of Earth. Cave Art Caves have provided clues to the past for social scientists. Cave paintings and sculptures thousands of year old have been found all over the world. Artifacts also have been discovered in caves. The art and artifacts provide information about how people lived long ago. Cave Art Tools Cave artists used sharp stones to grind colored minerals into powder. They mixed the powder with animal fat to create paint. They may have used moss, fur, hollow reeds, or their own hair as paintbrushes. 16

18 SECTION 11 Enrichment Essay - What is History? What is history? This question may seem really easy, even silly. Most people would say that history is the study of the important people, dates, and events of the past. This answer is true as far as it goes. But who decides what people, dates, and events are important? And why should we bother learning about them? Let s dig a little deeper into the question What is history? First of all, history is an important way of thinking about the world. To see what this means, imagine waking up tomorrow and not being able to remember a single thing about your past. You can t remember your name or who your parents or family members are. You can t remember the rules to your favorite game or anything you ever learned in school. Without a knowledge of your own past, you might feel lost and lonely. You wouldn t even know who you are. And you would have a hard time making good decisions about what to do next. In a similar way, history helps us make sense of the world. History is the memory of communities, peoples, and nations. Without history, individuals and whole countries would lose their sense of direction. The next time you watch the news on TV, notice how often reporters, politicians, and others mention something about the past. Humans constantly use their knowledge of the past to make sense of what is happening today. History is also an academic discipline. It is a systematic way of using evidence to make sense of the past. When you think about it, the past is not an easy thing to study. After all, it s not here any longer for anyone to observe directly. So historians turn to many kinds of evidence to describe and understand the past. Old documents, maps, tools, ruins, and many other kinds of evidence fascinate them.they want to know who created them, what they were created for, and what they can teach us about the past. History as an Ongoing Argument To make sense of the past, historians must weigh the available evidence and try to figure out what the facts are. Then they need to stitch the facts together to answer the questions that interest them. In doing this, they must use their judgment. And that means their own viewpoints come into play. As a result, historians argue all the time. They argue about what the facts really are. They also argue about how to interpret the facts. 17

19 History, then, is much more than a listing of facts. Some people have even described history as an ongoing argument about the past. Why does the argument go on? Sometimes historians find new evidence, such as an old document or the ruins of an ancient city. Discoveries like these may lead them to rethink old explanations. Sometimes historians take a fresh look at existing evidence and see things that others have overlooked. As they do so, they may explain events in a different way. Reading History Our discussion leads to some key points about how to read history. You can t just assume that what you re reading is the final truth. If you read more than one version of history, you are likely to find differences. So when you read history, ask yourself these questions: Who wrote this document? When was it written? What kinds of evidence does the author use? Is the evidence reliable? Is the author trying to promote a particular viewpoint? An Example of a Historical Argument Let s look at one example of a historical argument. In History Alive! The Ancient World, you will learn about the Roman Empire. This was the greatest empire of the ancient world. It stretched across much of Europe, North Africa, and western Asia. People in the empire thought of its capital city, Rome, as the center of the world. Protected by its armies, the empire lasted for about 500 years, from about 31 b.c.e. to 476 c.e. Then a dramatic change happened. The western half of the empire was overrun by tribes of people the Romans called barbarians, meaning uncivilized. In 476, the last Roman emperor in the west was forced to give up his throne. The western half the empire broke up into separate kingdoms ruled by the barbarians. Although the empire s eastern half survived for another 1,000 years, the mighty Roman Empire of old was gone forever. The breakup of the empire shocked people throughout the Mediterranean world. A great argument began that continues to this day. How could such a powerful empire disappear? What caused Rome to fall? Edward Gibbon s Explanation In the 1700s, an English historian named Edward Gibbon became fascinated by these questions. He gave his answers in a famous work called The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Gibbon certainly did his homework. His work was so huge that it was published in six volumes over a period of 12 years. 18

20 So why did Rome fall, according to Gibbon? He mentions a number of causes, but two of them stand out. The first was the pressure from the barbarians outside the empire. The second was a kind of decay inside the empire itself. The Romans, Gibbon said, became soft. They became too fond of luxury, and they lost their sense of public spirit. They forgot the virtues of strength and citizenship that had made Rome great. The Argument Goes On Modern historians still admire Gibbon s work. Most of them, though, would say that his explanation of Rome s fall was overly simple. They argue that many causes worked together to bring down the empire. In addition to the moral decay that Gibbon wrote about, they point to a number of economic, social, military, and even environmental problems. These problems range from high taxes that hurt the economy to lead poisoning. (The Romans used lead in their pottery and water pipes.) Many other causes have been named as well. One historian lists more than 200 of them! Historians don t yet agree on which causes were the most important. In part, that s because new generations of historians bring fresh thinking and new discoveries to old problems. For example, the study of economics was in its infancy in Gibbon s time. Today historians are much better equipped to look at economic problems as a possible source of Rome s troubles. In addition, different historians viewpoints may lead them to notice different aspects of a complex story. The argument also goes on because history is a way of thinking about the present, not just the past. Every generation finds its own lessons in the events of history. Gibbon, for example, lived in a time of great progress and prosperity in Europe. He was fascinated by Rome partly because he wanted to know whether the Europe of his own day might decline and fall, too. Similarly, many people today compare the powerful Roman Empire to the United States. Like Gibbon, they want to know whether there are lessons in Rome s story that might apply to their own time. No doubt the historians of the future will have their own reasons for asking once again why Rome fell. Conclusion We started with a simple question: What is history? As you have seen, this question has many answers. History is a study of the past. It is a way of making sense of the world. It is an academic discipline. It is a combination of facts and interpretations of facts. It is also an ongoing argument that changes with new evidence and new thinking. And that is the most exciting thing of all, because it means that history is very much alive. 19

21 CHAPTER 2 EARLY HOMININS Essential Question: What capabilities helped hominins survive?

22 SECTION 1 Introduction LEARNING TARGETS Describe the hunter-gather societies, including the development of tools and the use of fire. Identify the locations of human communities that populated the major regions of the world and describe how humans adapted to a variety of environments. Discuss the climatic changed and human modifications of the physical environment that gave rise to the domestication of plants and animals and new sources of clothing and shelter. Ancient humans left clues about their lives in cave paintings.scientists call these prehistoric humans hominins. In this lesson, you will learn about important groups of hominins. Three kinds of history detectives that study the past are archaeologists, historians, and geographers. The study of hominins involves a fourth type, paleoanthropologists. Paleoanthropologists specialize in studying the development and culture of the earliest hominins. (Paleo means ancient. ) In 1959, the husband-and-wife team of Louis and Mary Leakey was searching for evidence of early remains in Africa. They discovered pieces of hominin skeletons. The bones were scattered among artifacts that looked like tools. While Louis focused on analyzing the bones, Mary took the time to sketch the stone tools they had found. They knew these artifacts were the keys to better understanding old and modern humans. It led to a great advance in the field of paleoanthropology. The Leakeys named their discovery homo habilis, or Handy Man, in honor of this hominin group s ability to make tools. What have scientists found out about Handy Man and other hominins? How were these hominins like us? How were they different? What abilities did different hominin groups have? How did these hominins travel among Earth s continents? To answer these and other questions, you will learn about the four hominin groups from different time periods. 21

23 Prehistoric Humans Prehistoric humans made tools from stone and bone. 22

24 SECTION 2 Homo Habilis: Handy Man How are hominins like Handy Man related to later hominins and to us? Anthropologists often disagree about the answer to this question because they have so few clues to analyze. Bones as old as those the Leakeys found in 1960 are very hard to find. However, most anthropologists agree that Handy Man, or Homo habilis (HA-buh-lis) in Latin, was a very early form of humans.scientists usually give Latin names to groups of living things. (Latin was the language of the ancient Romans who ruled a great empire for hundreds of years.) Handy Man lived about 2.4 to 1.5 to million years ago, around 2 million years Before the Common Era (B.C.E.). We call the era we are in now the Common Era (C.E.). Find the Homo habilis on the timeline. Notice that its date of existence is 2.4 million B.C.E. Now find Homo sapiens, which are related to present-day modern humans. They appeared about 200,000 years ago. As this example shows, larger B.C.E. dates are farther in the past, and smaller numbers are closer to today. This system helps us understand how long ago a historical event occurred. Handy Man combined ape and human features. Also, this group had the capability to walk on two feet, a trait that allowed them to gather and carry food more easily. They could also use their hands to shape or chip stones into tools. Scientists have discovered Handy Man remains only in Africa. Sometimes, the bones of more than one Handy Man were found together. It is likely that these hominins lived in groups. This would have helped them survive. They could have worked together to protect themselves against animal attacks. They also could have collected food over larger areas of land. The tools that the Leakeys found were an important clue about this hominin group. Many scholars believe that this group may have made tools. This ability to make and use tools suggests some similarities between Handy Man and modern humans. Making a tool, even a simple one, takes thought and effort. First, the hominins had to think about what kind of tool was needed. Then, they had to plan how to make it. Finally, they 23

25 had to craft the tool themselves and try using it. Handy Man s tools were very simple.these hominins used animal bones as digging sticks and rocks as cutting tools. Handy Man may even have passed these early skills on to others. The ability to make tools helped Handy Man thrive. The use of cutting tools allowed them to tear the meat from dead animals.crushing tools may have helped them crack animal bones to eat the marrow inside. Which of these helped Homo habilis survive against animal attacks? The name Homo habilis means... A. building shelters B. burying their dead C. living together in groups D. using bows and arrows A. "Upright Man," the biped. B. "Handy Man," the toolmaker. C. "Wise Man," the language user. D. "Artist Man," the cave painter. Check Answer Check Answer 24

26 Homo Habilis Which statement about Homo habilis describes a capability that helped their group survive? A. They came before Neanderthals. B. They lived 1.5 million years ago. C. They had ape and human features. D. They knew how to make tools. Check Answer Paleoanthropologists have studied the remains and artifacts of different groups of hominins to learn about them. Dating these remains helps us understand where modern humans came from. Homo habilis may have used simple stone tools to skin animals. Scientists believe that this group ate meat as well as fruits and vegetables. 25

27 Hominins Timeline Paleoanthropologists have studied the remains and artifacts of different groups of hominins to learn about them. Dating these remains helps us understand where modern humans came from. 26

28 SECTION 3 Homo Erectus: Upright Man It is no wonder that scientists have found the bones of Upright Man in many places. This group of hominins was well-suited for traveling. They were taller and thinner than earlier hominins some even reaching the height of modern humans. Their bones were very strong. And they were good walkers and runners. Another type of hominid was discovered in 1891 by a Dutchman named Eugene Dubois (doo-bwah). While he and his team were searching for artifacts on the island of Java, off the southern coast of Asia, they found a new type of hominid skull. In time, Dubois team discovered the bones of many more hominins. As scientists assembled the bones, they observed that these hominins stood up straight. Dubois named this hominid group Homo erectus (UH-rek-tuhs), or Upright Man. (At this time, Lucy and Handy Man had not yet been discovered.) Upright Man lived on Earth longer than any other hominid group, from 1.8 million to 200,000 B.C.E. Scientists believe that they were the first hominins to migrate out of Africa. Their remains have been found in both Asia and Europe. What trait made Homo erectus well suited for traveling? A. Short, stocky build B. Ridge above the eyes C. Long, strong leg bones D. Round, smooth foreheads Check Answer 27

29 The facial features of Upright Man looked more like those of modern humans than the faces of earlier hominins.upright Man hominins had foreheads that were round and smooth. But they still had a large ridge above the eyes, a thicker skull, and a jaw that stuck out. Like Handy Man, hominins in the Upright Man group were toolmakers. But their larger brains enabled them to invent more complex tools, including strong hand axes made of stone. One of Upright Man s greatest advantages was the ability to use fire. Anthropologists have found burned animal bones in the same places as Upright Man remains. This is a clue that Upright Man may have used fire to cook animal meat. Scientists aren t sure whether these hominins were hunters or merely gatherers, finding dead animals to eat. But studies of their tools and teeth show that they ate more meat than earlier hominins did. They feasted on red deer, elephant, rhinoceros, goat, boar, and oysters. The remains of an ancient campsite found in France have offered additional clues about how Upright Man lived. Scientists guess that this group built oval huts by covering posts with tree branches. The group kept a fire burning in the center of the hut. It is likely that group members sat and slept on animal skins. They may have decorated their bodies with yellow-colored mud called ocher. Homo erectus was the first hominid to use... A. hands. B. fire. C. fish hooks. D. stone tools. Check Answer 28

30 Scientists believe that Upright Man groups moved from place to place, building shelters with tools, and using fire to keep warm. These capabilities helped them travel farther and survive for longer periods than earlier hominins could. The ability to construct shelters allowed Upright Man to adapt to colder climates and live in areas without caves or other natural shelters. The ability to control fire helped them survive the cold, cook animal meat, and protect themselves from predators. Movie 2.1 Mankind The Story of All of Us: Fire Movie 2.2 Human Origins: Expanding World of Human Erectus Homo erectus was the first hominid to use fire for warmth and cooking. These hominins may have tried to carry a glowing ember with them, as they moved from place to place. 29

31 Homo Erectus This reconstructed Homo erectus skull shows some physical differences between Upright Man and modern humans. The large ridge above the eye sockets is one key characteristic. 30

32 Hominins Timeline Paleoanthropologists have studied the remains and artifacts of different groups of hominins to learn about them. Dating these remains helps us understand where modern humans came from. 31

33 SECTION 4 Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis Most important, Neanderthals had large brains. They used their intelligence to become skilled toolmakers. More than 60 types of Neanderthal tools have been found. These tools required much more planning, skill, and knowledge than the tools made by earlier hominins. Neanderthals created knives, scrapers, and spear points. They learned how to make sharp, thin blades by breaking off the top of a rock and then chipping two or three sharp flakes from the original piece. In 1856, some mine workers in Germany s Neander Valley found a skeleton. It had thick bones and a ridge above the eyes, but was also very humanlike. Today, most scientists consider this fourth group of hominins to be a distinct type of Homo sapiens ( Wise Man ), the large-brained group that modern humans belong to. Scientists call this grouphomo sapiens neanderthalensis, or Neanderthal (nee-an-der-tahl) Man. Neanderthals lived after Upright Man, from 200,000 to 28,000 years ago. Neanderthals lived in Africa, Europe, and parts of western Asia. The appearance of the skeleton found in Germany led scientists to believe that Neanderthals walked hunched over, with their hands dragging on the ground. As it turned out, the skeleton was of an older man who had a bone disease.in reality, Neanderthals walked upright. They were shorter and stockier than modern humans, but they were also much stronger. Large brains helped Homo sapiens neanderthalensis survive, giving them the ability to... A. run much faster. B. bend farther forward. C. design better tools. D. plant crops for food. Check Answer 32

34 The ability to make better tools improved Neanderthals chances for survival. But their ability to work together helped even more. Neanderthals lived and traveled in groups. And they were the first early hominins to hunt in an organized group. Scientists believe that Neanderthals may have had a sense of community. When members of a group died, their bodies were laid in burial mounds, along with hunting tools and flowers. This is a clue that Neanderthals cared about one another and had a sense of ritual. When on a hunt, Neanderthals worked together to surround and trap an animal. Then they would close in and kill it with spears. Evidence suggests that if some hunters were injured, other group members would help them. Paleoanthropologists have found some Neanderthal bones showing signs of serious breaks that had healed. These clues lead them to think that Neanderthals helped members of their group who were hurt or sick. Scientists interpret these indications that Neanderthals cared for each other to mean that Neanderthals lived as a community. This capability would have given them benefits in surviving. For example, they would have been able to learn from the experience and the wisdom of older members of the group. Evidence suggests that Homo sapiens neanderthalensis lived in communities and cared for each other. How exactly are Neanderthals related to the early modern humans? Scientists aren t sure. Judging from the remains that have been found of both groups, Neanderthals existed side by side with early modern humans for about 10,000 years. No one knows the reason why Neanderthal populations disappeared. All we know for certain is that only one type of Homo sapiens survived to become early modern humans. 33

35 At Neanderthal sites, evidence from burial mounds, showing signs that people cared for the sick and injured, has led scientists to believe that Neanderthals had... A. creative minds. B. a complex religion. C. a desire to make art. D. a sense of community. Check Answer 34

36 Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis Movie 2.3 Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis Homo Neanderthalensis had a much larger brain than Upright Man and Handy Man. Notice the differences from modern human skulls, including the double arch of protruding bone over the eyes and the large opening for the nose. 35

37 Hominins Timeline Paleoanthropologists have studied the remains and artifacts of different groups of hominins to learn about them. Dating these remains helps us understand where modern humans came from. 36

38 SECTION 5 Homo Sapiens Sapiens In 1879, an eight-year-old Spanish girl named Maria was off exploring a cave with her father when she made an amazing discovery. She found a cave room filled with ancient paintings of deer, bison, wild horses, and boars. They were the first prehistoric cave paintings ever discovered. The people who created these ancient cave paintings were the earliest members of our own group, Homo sapiens sapiens (SAY-pee-enz), or Doubly Wise Man. Homo sapiens sapiens first appeared about 150,000 years ago. Most scientists believe that they originated in Africa. From there, they spread to Europe, Asia, and Australia. Eventually, they migrated to North and South America, probably traveling across land bridges, which were later covered by water. The first modern humans looked more like us than the Neanderthals did. They had high, rounded skulls, large brains, small teeth, and slender bones. But their bodies were not as well adapted to the cold as those of Neanderthals. Early modern humans may have survived because of their ability to create better tools, shelter, and clothing. As toolmakers, early modern humans were even more skilled than Neanderthals. They attached thin blades to bone, antler, and stone to create a wide variety of tools. They made tools used for engraving and sculpting. They fashioned needles for sewing animal skins together. They also built shelters of earth and stone. These prehistoric humans were also better hunters than earlier hominins. They made hooks and spears to catch fish. Most important, they invented the spear thrower and the bow and arrow. Armed with these weapons, they could hunt from a distance, making hunting much safer. Through their artwork, early modern humans left behind a fascinating record of their lives.they left paintings on the walls of their caves. Artists also carved and shaped images out of clay, bone, flint (a hard mineral), and ivory. They even created musical instruments. Prehistoric artists created a variety of images. Some images came from the world around them, like the animals they hunted. Some images came from their imaginations, such as mythical creatures. These early artists also made patterns using shapes. Paleoanthropologists think the artists may have signed their work with handprints. Why did early modern humans create art? Many scientists believe that they painted to express themselves. Some think that pictures were used to teach children. Others think that images had religious purposes. 37

39 What advantage over previous hominid groups did the invention of the spear thrower give to early modern humans? A. to cook animals for food B. to injure animals with spears C. to kill animals from a distance D. to hunt animals in organized groups Once Homo sapiens sapiens had food and shelter, they had time to create art that expressed their feelings about the world. They may have built scaffolding to help place art in high places. Check Answer One thing is certain. These early humans did not merely exist in their world. They had many feelings about it and created images to communicate those feelings. They had the ability to express thoughts to others through pictures and symbols. Some scientists believe that these abilities were able to contribute to the development of complex language, one of the capabilities that makes us fully human. 38

40 Homo Sapiens Sapiens Movie 2.4 Neanderthal vs. Homo Sapian: Who Would Win in a Fight: This reconstructed Homo sapiensskull is most similar to a modern human s skull. They are called the Wise Man because of their large brains. 39

41 Hominins Timeline Paleoanthropologists have studied the remains and artifacts of different groups of hominins to learn about them. Dating these remains helps us understand where modern humans came from. 40

42 SECTION 6 Chapter 2 Summary LEARNING TARGETS Describe the hunter-gather societies, including the development of tools and the use of fire. Identify the locations of human communities that populated the major regions of the world and describe how humans adapted to a variety of environments. Discuss the climatic changed and human modifications of the physical environment that gave rise to the domestication of plants and animals and new sources of clothing and shelter. In this lesson, you learned about the capabilities of four hominin groups. Handy Man Two scientists found the bones of a hominin who lived between 1.5 to 2.4 million years ago in Africa. It belonged to the group Homo habilis, and had the capability to walk on two feet. Upright Man The group Homo erectus, or Upright Man, were the first hominins to migrate out of Africa into Asia and Europe. They stood up straight and could make tools, fire, and shelters to protect them from the cold. Neanderthal Man The group scientists called Homo neanderthalensis, or Neanderthal Man, had large brains, made complex tools, and lived in communities. Wise Man Homo sapiens, or Wise Man, made more complex tools, were skilled hunters, and created artwork. This is the group modern humans are in. 41

43 SECTION 7 Piecing Together the Story of the Early Humans Have you ever put together a jigsaw puzzle? You start with a picture that shows what the completed puzzle will look like. Then you fit the pieces together until they make up that picture. Suppose, though, that you didn t have a picture to work with, but only the pieces? Even worse, what if most of the pieces were missing? How hard would the puzzle be then? That s the situation facing scientists who study early hominins. These scientists are trying to understand how and when early hominins developed.the puzzle pieces they work with are bits of bone that are millions of years old. Scientists know that they have only some of the pieces. Each new find gives them another clue to work with. Gradually, the overall shape of the picture becomes a bit clearer. For instance, scientists today agree that hominins first appeared in Africa. But only 60 years ago, even this much of the picture was unclear. It took many finds to convince scientists that Africa was the birthplace of early hominins. Each of these finds was the result of hard, patient work. Here you will learn about some other important pieces of the hominid puzzle and the people who found them. The Taung Child In 1924, an anthropologist named Raymond Dart examined an ancient skull that had been found in a quarry in Taung, South Africa. The skull belonged to a young, apelike creature. It became known as the Taung Child. Dart gave the fossil a more scientific name: Australopithecus africanus.this name is Latin for southern ape from Africa. The Taung Child was the first Australopithecus fossil ever found. It is 2 to 3 million years old. Dart was thrilled by the discovery. He thought it showed that the earliest hominins appeared in Africa. Other scientists disagreed. At that time, many of them believed that hominins first appeared in Asia. Over the next 20 years, a Scottish anthropologist, Robert Broom, collected more and more Australopithecus fossils in Africa. By the 1940s, most scientists had to agree that Dart was right. "Nutcracker Man" Far to the north, Mary Leakey found more puzzle pieces at Olduvai Gorge in East Africa. Mary and her husband, Louis, 42

44 had spent 30 years searching the gorge for hominid remains. In 1959, Mary found hundreds of bits of bone. When she pieced them together, they made up the skull of a previously unknown type of hominid. The fossil was nicknamed Nutcracker Man for its large jaw. Today it is called Australopithecus boisei. It is more than 1.7 million years old. More evidence was found by Mary and Louis s son, Richard Leakey. Richard found his first fossil when he was just six years old a part of an extinct pig. As a young man, he began leading expeditions in East Africa. Richard made many important finds, including skulls and other bones of Homo habilis and Homo erectus. In 1970, he found another Nutcracker Man fossil. Richard s most famous discovery came in 1984, near Lake Turkana in Kenya. Most hominid fossils are small parts of the body. The new find was a nearly complete Homo erectus skeleton. Known as the Turkana Boy, it is about 1.6 million years old. Richard s wife, Meave, has also hunted fossils in Africa. Among her finds are still more species of early hominins. Richard and Meave s daughter, Louise, has worked with Meave on field expeditions, continuing the proud Leakey tradition. Footprints at Laetoli Mary Leakey made many finds during her long career. The one that excited her the most was a truly fantastic discovery: hominid footprints more than 3.5 million years old! Mary s team spotted the footprints in 1976 at Laetoli. This site is about 30 miles south of Olduvai Gorge. The footprints were found in a layer of volcanic ash. Apparently, a volcano erupted shortly after the footprints were made. When the ash hardened, it preserved the footprints. Besides being amazingly old, the footprints were important for another reason. The creatures that made them had walked upright on two feet. The footprints were even older than the famous fossil nicknamed Lucy. They showed that hominins were walking upright at a very early date. One of the hominid footprints at Laetoli, preserved in hardened volcanic ash 3.6 million years ago. 43

45 A Truly Ancient Hominid Tim White, an American anthropologist, helped excavate the Laetoli footprints. He also worked with Donald Johanson, who found Lucy. White s own teams have made a number of other finds. One of them pushed hominid history even farther back in time. In 1994, White was working in Ethiopia. An African member of his team discovered hominid fossils that proved to be 4.4 million years old. The fossils had a very ancient combination of apelike and humanlike features. White and his co-workers called the new species Ardipithecus ramidus. The word ramid means root in the Afar language of Ethiopia. The researchers thought that the fossil was very close to the root of the hominid family tree. These discoveries, and many more like them, are helping scientists to piece together the story of early hominins. Scientists often argue about exactly how the pieces fit together and what the big picture looks like. Meanwhile, they keep on looking. They know that there are many more pieces of the puzzle scattered around Africa, waiting to be found. Ardipithecus Ramidus Click on the image above to zoom in. Movie 2.5 The Day We Learned to Think 44

46 CHAPTER 3 FROM HUNTERS & GATHERERS TO FARMERS In this chapter, we will travel with early hominins as they move from hunting and gathering to farming. We will learn how this important development changed people s lives.

47 SECTION 1 Introduction LEARNING TARGETS Identify the locations of human communities that populated the major regions of the world and describe how humans adapted to a variety of environments. Discuss the climatic changed and human modifications of the physical environment that gave rise to the domestication of plants and animals and new sources of clothing and shelter. Scientists have identified and studied five important groups of hominins. Like the hominins before them, early modern humans hunted and gathered their food. In this chapter, you ll read about how early people learned, over thousands of years, to produce food by farming. Humans discovered farming toward the end of the Stone Age. This period gets its name from the stone tools prehistoric people made and used. Historians divide the Stone Age into two periods. The first is the Paleolithic Age, or Old Stone Age. During this period, people got food by roaming from place to place to hunt wild animals and gather nuts, berries, and seeds from the plants they found. By about 8000 B.C.E., some people had learned how to raise animals and crops for food.this knowledge enabled these people, for the first time, to live in one place. The Neolithic Age, or New Stone Age, had begun. This gradual shift from hunter-gatherers (food collectors) to farmers (food producers) is one of the most important advances in human development. People built permanent shelters. They settled in larger communities. Together, they produced what they needed.people developed new skills and made a variety of things that improved the quality of their lives. Over time, they also began to exchange goods with people in other communities for the things they lacked in their own villages. In this chapter, you will explore the many ways in which the development of farming changed human life. 46

48 This prehistoric cave painting in northern Africa shows people herding animals. This ability marked a major change in how people lived. 47

49 SECTION 2 From Old Stone Age to New Stone Age What change began the Neolithic Age, about 8000 B.C.E.? A. trading B. farming The Old Stone Age, or Paleolithic Age, began about 2 million years ago, with the first toolmaking hominids, and lasted until about 8000 B.C.E. It was during this time period that early modern humans developed. Like the hominids before them, early humans were hunter-gatherers. They wandered from place to place, hunting animals and gathering plants for food. Often, they took shelter in caves. Prehistoric cave painters left clues about their way of life. The New Stone Age, or Neolithic Age, began when people started to farm and produce their own food. The discovery of farming did not happen all at once. Over thousands of years, people gradually learned to raise animals and plant crops. They eventually began to rely on these farms for their food. Now, rather than having to roam long distances in search of things to eat, people could settle down in one place. C. hunting D. building Check Answer The Neolithic Age began around 8000 B.C.E. and lasted until about 3000 B.C.E., when people learned to make tools out of metal instead of stone. During this time, farming developed in many places throughout the world, including parts of Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. 48

50 The Neolithic Age ended about 3000 B.C.E., with the discovery of how to... A. build brick houses. B. weave linen cloth. C. tame wild animals. People in settlements like these lived very different lives from earlier hunter-gatherers. They could now concern themselves with other matters such as building permanent shelters and forming larger communities. They could make better tools and clothing. And they could swap items they had with other communities to get the things they lacked. As you will see, these changes made life safer, more comfortable, and more interesting. Movie 3.1: The Birth of Farming D. make metal tools. Check Answer Many Neolithic settlements were located in the Fertile Crescent, east of the Mediterranean Sea, where the land was fertile (good for growing crops). Here, people built towns such as Jericho (JER-ih-koh), Catal Hoyuk (CHAHT-ul hoo-yook), and Jarmo (see map). 49

51 Early Neolithic Settlements Movie 3.2 Textbook Talkie: Paleolithic & Neolithic Ages Most people in the Neolithic Age settled in fertile areas near sources of water. 50

52 SECTION 3 Creating a Stable Food Supply These two developments the growing of crops and the domestication of animals are called agriculture. The Neolithic Age began with the invention of agriculture. For the first time, people had some control over their food supply. Let s explore why this change was one of the most important advances in all of history. During the Paleolithic Age, people obtained food by hunting animals and gathering plants.they did not have a stable, or dependable, food supply. Wild plants and animals grew scarce when people stayed in one area for too long. And hunting was dangerous. Hunters were often injured or killed. Gradually, people found ways to lessen their dependence on hunting and gathering. Instead of gathering wild plants, people discovered that they could plant seeds and harvest crops. Over time, farmers learned which seeds produced the most crops in the areas where they lived. In this Neolithic painting, herdsmen work with cattle. Early farmers also learned how to domesticate animals, to raise and use them for people s needs. They raised sheep, goats, and cattle for the meat. Goats and cattle also provided milk. Mules helped carry heavy loads and pull plows. 51

53 Why was the Fertile Crescent the site of many early settlements? What was the greatest benefit to people when early farmers began to raise plants and animals? A. The hills were rich in gold. B. The soil was good for crops. C. The forest was full of animals. D. The caves were deep and warm. A. They kept pets for company. B. They could travel more easily. C. They shared most of the work. D. They had a stable food supply. Check Answer Check Answer 52

54 SECTION 4 Making Permanent Shelters The first great change agriculture brought about was the use of permanent shelters. During the Paleolithic Age, people had lived in caves or rough, tent-like structures. These were temporary shelters because hunter-gatherers were nomads. They had to move often, to follow the wild animal herds or to find new plants to eat. As people settled down to farm during the Neolithic Age, they built shelters that were more permanent. In many areas, people used mud bricks, packed together, to build houses that were round or rectangular in shape. Sometimes, people added stones and tree branches to the mud to strengthen the walls and roof. These houses had openings high in the walls. Historians believe that people may have climbed ladders to reach the openings and enter the house. Inside were several rooms. Places to store food were built right into the floor. Pits for cooking were also dug into the floor, and lined with clay. People may have filled the pits with water, dropping in hot stones to make the water boil for cooking. The development of permanent shelters was important in several ways. Houses gave people protection from harsh weather and wild animals. Houses made life more comfortable. People could cook food in new ways. The longlasting shelters enabled people to settle together in larger communities. Neolithic houses made of packed mud helped people stay warm in winter and cool in summer. 53

55 SECTION 5 Establishing Communities With many of their basic needs now met, people had more time and energy for other activities. They could invent new ways of making their lives more comfortable and much safer. Larger communities could defend themselves more easily against their enemies. The Neolithic town of Jericho, for example, was protected by strong stone walls. All of these changes in farming villages led to growing populations. The ability to raise food by farming allowed people to settle in permanent shelters. These structures, in turn, enabled people to form larger communities. In Paleolithic times, small bands of perhaps 20 to 60 people wandered from place to place in search of food. As people began growing food, they settled down near their farms. As a result, towns and villages grew up, like those at Jericho (in present-day Israel) and Catal Hoyuk (Turkey). Living in communities made it possible for people to organize themselves more efficiently. They could divide up the work of producing food and other things they needed. While some people grew crops, others built houses and made tools. Village dwellers also learned to cooperate to do a task more quickly. For example, toolmakers could share the work of making stone axes and knife blades. By working together, they could make more tools in the same amount of time. Neolithic villages were the first real communities. People were able to cooperate as they worked and defended their homes. 54

56 SECTION 6 Developing New Jobs Having a stable food supply allowed people to develop new kinds of jobs. In Paleolithic times, people s main job was finding enough food to survive.with farms providing steadier supplies of food, Neolithic people could develop more specialized skills. Neolithic people didn t merely want to survive. They wanted to make themselves, and their surroundings, more beautiful. They decorated their pottery and baskets with geometric shapes. Stoneworkers learned to polish stones to make shiny jewelry and mirrors. House builders added special rooms to honor the gods and goddesses they believed in. One effect of the development of different jobs was to inspire workers to improve their skills. This led to newer and better ways of doing things. And different jobs added much greater variety to community life. A good example is the town of Catal Hoyuk, which dates back to about 6000 B.C.E. Historians believe that the townspeople of Catal Hoyuk worked in a variety of jobs. Besides farmers, there were weavers, basket makers, toolmakers, and traders. Focusing on one job at a time gave people the opportunity to improve the ways they worked. In Catal Hoyuk, farmers learned how to grow more than 14 kinds of food plants. Clothing makers developed a way to spin and weave. They wove natural fibers such as wool and linen into comfortable cloth. In some regions, people mined flint so that stoneworkers could create sharper tools. People in Neolithic communities had the time and the tools to create works of art. 55

57 Why did people in the Neolithic Age live together in larger groups, compared with earlier times? How did dividing up the work help communities produce more to meet their needs? A. They found better ways to get along with others. B. They made special goods like baskets and pottery. C. They needed more people for hunting and gathering. D. They could grow enough food to support more people. A. Everybody did the same job. B. Most people enjoyed working alone. C. Individuals developed a variety of skills. D. Villagers learned to make stone tools. Check Answer Check Answer 56

58 SECTION 7 Beginning to Trade The growth of trade allowed people to make use of more resources. It also brought them into contact with people from distant places. These contacts helped spread ideas and knowledge throughout the ancient world. Another major change introduced in Neolithic times was the growth of trade. Paleolithic hunter-gatherers rarely traded with other groups. They were mostly concerned with the animals, plants, and other resources they found nearby. As people settled in towns and villages, trade became a more common activity. Usually, people trade to get resources they do not have in their own area. As Neolithic people became more skilled in their crafts, they wanted materials that would improve the strength and beauty of the things they made. Getting those resources became the job of traders. Traders often traveled hundreds of miles in search of these materials. They crossed mountains on foot, rode donkeys across deserts, and sailed the Mediterranean Sea on ships. What kinds of things were traders looking for? Popular items included flint and obsidian. Obsidian is a black glass found at volcanic mountains.craftspeople used it to make knife blades, arrowheads, and mirrors. People also traded for beauty products like shell ornaments and a red ore called hematite. Women rubbed hematite on their lips and cheeks to make them redder. This hand ax is made from obsidian. Neolithic traders in the Mediterranean region prized this resource. It was found mostly in the area that is now Turkey. 57

59 Why did Neolithic people trade? How did trade help Neolithic people make stronger tools? A. to learn other languages B. to get resources they lacked C. to ride across the deserts D. to show off their good crafts A. They built thick stone walls around their communities. B. They developed sturdy muscles by walking long distances. C. They learned from nearby villages how to work with metal. D. They got special materials such as obsidian from other areas. Check Answer Check Answer 58

60 SECTION 8 Chapter 3 Summary LEARNING TARGETS Identify the locations of human communities that populated the major regions of the world and describe how humans adapted to a variety of environments. Discuss the climatic changed and human modifications of the physical environment that gave rise to the domestication of plants and animals and new sources of clothing and shelter. In this chapter, you learned how the development of farming changed people s lives between the Paleolithic Age and the Neolithic Age. A Stable Food Supply During the Paleolithic Age, people lived as nomads, obtaining their food by hunting animals and gathering plants. Gradually, people discovered they could grow crops and domesticate animals. These two developments are called agriculture. Agriculture marked the beginning of the Neolithic Age. Shelters and Communities As people began to farm, they built permanent shelters and formed communities. Towns and villages grew up near farms. Jobs and Trade Living in communities allowed people to improve how they lived and worked. They created new jobs and traded for the resources they needed. 59

61 SECTION 9 Enrichment Article - Neolithic Societies Around the World You ve learned about the shift from hunting and gathering to farming. This change in people s way of life had enormous consequences. In fact, it is often called the Neolithic Revolution. Your study of this dramatic change focused on the earliest Neolithic settlements in western Asia. But over time, humans made the shift to farming in many other places as well. Let s take a closer look at where and why the Neolithic Revolution happened. To understand this story, we need to take a step back and look at what came before the shift to farming. Pre-Neolithic Societies Between about 100,000 and 35,000 b.c.e., early humans spread from Africa to Europe, Asia, and Australia. Humans first migrated to the Americas from Asia as long ago as 25,000 b.c.e. Like their hominid ancestors, these early humans were hunter-gatherers. They used their intelligence and toolmaking ability to adapt to many kinds of environments. For example, those who lived near lakes and rivers learned to fish. In central Africa, people used barbed bone points to catch large catfish as much as 80,000 years ago. Near oceans and seas, people learned to collect shellfish and hunt sea mammals and seabirds. Elsewhere, bands of hunters worked together to stalk and kill large animals. Different groups became skilled in hunting the kinds of animals that lived in their area. In parts of western Europe, people specialized in hunting reindeer. Farther east, they hunted horses. In central Asia, hunters killed mammoths (a kind of hairy elephant). In the plains of North America, they hunted giant bison, mammoths, and mastodons (a hairy, elephant like creature). Humans adapted in other ways as well. They made animal skins into clothing. They fashioned tools and art from bones, ivory, and antlers. In the Ukraine, in eastern Europe, one team of scholars found an entire village made of mammoth bones. 60

62 Adapting to a Change in Climate Modern humans first appeared during the last great ice age. During ice ages, temperatures are cold, and glaciers cover much of the Earth. The most recent ice age reached its peak about 20,000 years ago. Vast sheets of ice covered much of Europe, Asia, and North America. Hunter-gatherers adapted to the cold by using fire for warmth, making clothing of animal skins, and taking shelter in caves. By 8000 b.c.e., the cold period had come to an end. Earth began getting warmer. Glaciers melted and retreated north. This change called for new adaptations. The new conditions were less friendly to large ice-age mammals like the mastodons. Hunting had already reduced their numbers. Now many of them became extinct. Some animals that were adapted to the cold, such as reindeer and elk, moved north. Familiar plants also disappeared, while other kinds of animal and plant life became more abundant. Forests spread over much of Europe and Asia. Humans adapted to these changes in two main ways. Most learned to collect and hunt more kinds of plants and animals. This was especially true in forested areas and in places such as eastern Europe and North America, where large animals still roamed. Others made a much bigger adaptation.gradually, they learned to collect the seeds of useful plants and replant them. They began domesticating (taming) wild animals. This was the beginning of farming the biggest change in humans way of life in all of history. Neolithic Societies People didn t learn to farm all at once. They started raising plants from seeds while continuing to hunt and gather much of their food. Gradually, some groups learned to rely on farming for most of their food. This shift marks the beginning of the Neolithic Revolution. As you have learned, the shift to farming happened first in western Asia around 8000 b.c.e. For the first time, people could settle down in one place instead of wandering about in search of plants and animals to eat. Over the next few thousand years, Neolithic societies appeared in other parts of the world. By about 5000 b.c.e., there were farming communities in parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Several major centers of Neolithic culture were located in fertile river valleys. Among them were the valleys of the Nile River (Egypt), the Indus (India), and the Huang He and Chang Jiang rivers (China). Some groups in the Americas also discovered farming. People grew squash in Mexico as early as 8000 b.c.e., though settled villages came much later. By 2500 b.c.e., there were thriving Neolithic settlements in Central America and in Peru. 61

63 Adapting to Local Conditions Like hunter-gatherers, early farmers had to adapt to local conditions. They grew the plants and domesticated the animals that thrived in their areas. Early farmers in western Asia grew wheat and other cereal grains, and domesticated wild goats and sheep. In eastern Asia, farmers grew millet and rice and raised a type of chicken. In Mexico, people grew plants that were native to the Americas, such as squash and maize (corn). In Central America, people grew cotton along with food crops like corns, beans, and squash. They used cotton to make fishing nets as well as cloth. People in the high mountains of Peru grew potatoes and domesticated llamas. Farmers had to adapt in other ways as well. In Egypt, farmers relied on the regular flooding of the Nile River to water their lands. In other places, farmers learned to store water and build irrigation systems. People in different areas built shelters out of local materials, such as mud brick, stone, and timber. Over time, great civilizations grew up around the early centers of Neolithic culture. Farming villages grew into cities, states, and empires. A new chapter in the human story had begun one that continues to this day. 62

64 Agriculture the business of farming; growing crops and raising animals. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 3 - Creating a Stable Food Supply

65 Anthropologists a scientist who studies human development and culture. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term

66 Archaeologists an expert who studies the past by examining objects that people have left behind. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 1 - Detectives Who Study The Past

67 Artifacts an object made or used by people in the past. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 1 - Detectives Who Study The Past

68 Capability ability or skill. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 2 - Homo Habilis: Handy Man

69 Catal Hoyuk a Neolithic town discovered in central Turkey. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 3 - From Old Stone Age to New Stone Age

70 Community a group of people who live in the same area and are united by common interests. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 2 - Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis

71 Contribute to give, along with others, to a common cause. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 2 - Homo Sapiens Sapiens

72 Domesticate to train a wild animal to be useful to humans. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 3 - Creating a Stable Food Supply

73 Efficiently working well; producing very little waste. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 3 - Establishing Communities

74 Enabled to provide the means or ability to do something. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 3 - Introduction

75 Environment all of the physical surroundings in a place, including land, water, animals, plants, and climate. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 1 - Detectives Who Study The Past

76 Features an important part or characteristic of something. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 1 - Detectives Who Study The Past

77 Fertile Crescent an arc-shaped region in Southwest Asia, with rich soil. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 3 - From Old Stone Age to New Stone Age

78 Geographers an expert who studies and creates maps of Earth s natural and human-made features. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 1 - Detectives Who Study The Past

79 Geometric having a form composed of one or a number of simple shapes, such as triangles, squares, or circles. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 1 - Cave Painting of Shapes and Handprints

80 Historians an expert who studies and records the past. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 1 - Detectives Who Study The Past

81 Hominins an early ancestor of humans. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term

82 Hominins an early ancestor of humans. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 2 - Homo Habilis: Handy Man

83 Intelligence a strong mental ability to reason and gain knowledge. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 2 - Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis

84 Major very important. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 3 - Beginning to Trade

85 Migrate to move from one geographic region to another. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 2 - Homo Erectus: Upright Man

86 Neolithic Age the later part of the Stone Age, called the New Stone Age, lasted from around 8000 B.C.E. to 3000 B.C.E. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 3 - From Old Stone Age to New Stone Age

87 Nomads one who moves from place to place with no permanent home. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 3 - Making Permanent Shelters

88 Paleolithic Age the first period of the Stone Age, called the Old Stone Age, from about 2 million years ago to around 8000 B.C.E. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 3 - From Old Stone Age to New Stone Age

89 Prehistoric before written history. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 1 - Detectives Who Study The Past

90 Rectangular having the shape of a rectangle. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 3 - Making Permanent Shelters

91 Researchers someone who searches for information on a particular subject. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 1 - Cave Painting of Shapes and Handprints

92 Resources something that can be used to fulfill a need. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 3 - Beginning to Trade

93 Ritual relating to a ceremony, such as a religious ceremony. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 1 - Cave Painting of a Human

94 Skeleton the bones that make up the body of a person or animal. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term

95 Temporary for a limited time. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 3 - Making Permanent Shelters

96 Textures the characteristics of an object s surface that can be identified by feeling or viewing it. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 1 - Cave Art Tools

97 Trade the business of buying and selling or exchanging items. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term Chapter 3 - Beginning to Trade

98 Trait a special feature or characteristic. Related Glossary Terms Drag related terms here Index Find Term

Chapter 2: Early Hominids

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