CONTENTS PREFACE 1 INTRODUCTION 3 CHAPTER I:THE PORTUGUESE EMPIRE CHAPTER II:THE IBERIAN CROWN CHAPTER III: THE CARREIRA DA ÍNDIA

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1 CONTENTS PREFACE 1 INTRODUCTION 3 CHAPTER I:THE PORTUGUESE EMPIRE The boundaries The demography The Portuguese ideology The Portuguese ruling class The povo The royal monopolies The Portuguese treasury Imperialisme as a business CHAPTER II:THE IBERIAN CROWN The Iberian union The crisis of the 1590s The silver fleets The Portuguese merchants After the Twelve Years' Truce The silver fleets revisited The Portuguese Restauração CHAPTER III: THE CARREIRA DA ÍNDIA Ships and navigation The monsoons Sailing statistics Financing the Carreira The pepper money The private trade Profitability Relapse and decline Effects of Dutch/Anglo aggression Shifting focus Decline

2 Shipping losses CHAPTER IV: THE ASIAN TRADES The ÍNDIAn Ocean The concession voyages The China Sea The Great Voyage CHAPTER V: THE PORTUGUESE IN ASIA Demography Portuguese society in Asia The Portuguese monopoly The Portuguese defence Corruption CHAPTER VI: THE COMING OUT OF THE DUTCH The Dutch-Portuguese linkage The 'embargoes' of the 1580s The 'embargoes' of the 1590s The fall of Antwerp The emigrants from Antwerp The Atlantic-Asian divide The Amsterdam Portuguese after 1599 CHAPTER VII: THE DUTCH STATES-GENERAL AND THE INDIES TRADE The Indian adventure Profitability of the early voyages The VOC The VOC ideology The Twelve Years' Truce Profitability of the VOC After the Truce CHAPTER VIII: THE VOC: FROM PRIVATEERING TO STRATEGY

3 Dutch shipping The first contacts The first VOC establishments The Twelve Years' Truce The Chinese trade The Japan trade Malacca, Malacca! Epilogue CHAPTER IX: THE RÉIS VIZINHOS The Asian role The Dutch The Moghuls Bijapur Kanara Ceylon Persia Atjeh and Johore Japan CHAPTER X: THE BALANCE SHEET The Casa da Índia and the Carreira da Índia The Estado da Índia The Portuguese intra-asian trade The Portuguese mentality The Philippine period The King's preference The flows of bullion APPENDICES 0.1 Conversion of currencies into silver or gold 1.1 Portuguese state revenues and some expenditures 1.2 Portuguese royal rights in the 1580s and 1600s 2.1 Public revenues, total and retained, in Mexico and Peru 2.2 Public revenues remitted from Mexico and Peru, with correction for shipments from Cádiz

4 2.3 Distribution of compensation for the asentistas remittances, a Carreira da Índia - Outward voyage, departures from Lisbon 3.1b Carreira da Índia - Outward voyage, arrivals and gains in Asia 3.1c Carreira da Índia - Return voyage, departures from Asia and arrivals in Lisbon 3.2 The Carreira pepper contracts 3.3 Estimates of money and silver shipped to Asia on behalf of the Portuguese crown 3.4 Purchase and selling prices of pepper in South ÍNDIA and in Lisbon 3.5 Carreira da ÍNDIA - Profitability estimates during the 1590s 4.1 Revenues and expenditures according to the budgets of the Estado da ÍNDIA 4.2 Silverflows into the Philippines' treasury 4.3 Officially recorded private silverflows into the Philippines 4.4 Number and origin of ships arriving at Manila 4.5 Exports of money and precious metals to Asia, including Japanese exports 4.6 Estimated volumes of trade in Asia 7.1 Amsterdam share of costs of Dutch shipping to Asia during the early voyages around Amsterdam share of the costs of the first four VOC fleets VOC shipping 10.1 Bullion flows in and from Mexico and Peru order of magnitude estimates GLOSSARY ABBREVIATIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY Primary sources

5 Printed sources Literature INDEX SAMENVATTING RESUMO CURRICULUM VITAE FIGURES 2.1 Public and private silver recorded in Spanish America and Sevilla 2.2 Public and private silver corrected for Cádiz transshipments 3.1 The Carreira da Índia a Carreira da Índia - Number of ships 3.2b Carreira da Índia - Average size and manning of ships leaving Lisbon 3.2c Carriera da Índia - Number of people 4.1 The cáfila routes and the concession routes to the Bay of Bengal 4.2 The concession routes a VOC Voyages - Number of ships 8.1b VOC Voyages - People 8.1c VOC Voyages Ships and people staying behind in Asia 8.1d Carreira da Índia Gains and losses in Asia 8.1e VOC Voyages - Average size and manning of ships leaving Netherlands 8.2 The North, Amboinese and South Moluccas 9.1 The Moluccas Political situation around India under the Moghuls