TABLE OF CONTENTS. List of Tables List of Figures List of Abbreviations. Chapter I Introduction 1

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1 TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables List of Figures List of Abbreviations Chapter I Introduction Significance of the Study Statement of the Problem Objective of the Study Hypothesis Methodology Tools of Analysis Limitation of the Study Period of the Study Chapterization 17 Chapter II Review of Literature Introduction Tribes in India Tribal Society Tribal Population in India Study on Paniyas Origin, Development and Social Structures of Paniya Customs of Paniyas Culture of Paniyas Religion of Paniyas Social Changes and Contextual issues of Paniyas Sociological Theories Functionalism Marxism Socialization Theories of Social Change 63 Chapter III Profile of the Study Area Introduction 65 7

2 3.2. Tamil Nadu The Nilgiris Historical Background Hills Rivers Transport and Communication Raiways Climate Tribes Schools for Tribal Tribal Development Population Tribal Population Gudalur Paniyas in Tamil Nadu Paniya Population in Tamil Nadu Kerala Tribal in Kerala Kannur Physiography History Administration Religion Scheduled Caste and Tribes 102 Chapter 1V Origin and Developmental Perspectives Introduction Meaning of Development Origin and Developments of Paniyas Traditional Life Style Social Structure & Organisation Elder Clan Social Order Media and Communication Inheritance Socio-Economic Condition Social Developments Developmental Programs by Government Social Organizations working for the Welfares of Paniyas ACCORD ASHWINI 138 8

3 Gudalur Adivasi Hospital (GAH) Adivasi Munnetra Sangam (AMS) Vidyodaya Trust KIRTADS Tribal Research Centre Health and Developments Medicinal Plants Family Planning People s Hesitation to Go to Hospitals Water and Sanitation Hygiene Education and Development Language Issues Paniyas Education Status of Paniya Women Status of Children Paniya Girl Child and Dropouts 173 Chapter V Socio- Cultural and Economic Perspectives Introduction Settlements Housing Family Paniya Language Customs: Dressing Customs: Food Customs: Ornaments Customs: Birth Customs: Naming of Child and Other Rites Customs: Puberty Customs: Marriage Customs: Death Occupation and Livelihood Social Issues among Paniyas Ill-treats by Others Water Problem Landlessness Forest Inhabiting and Hunting Road Transportation Chewing and Smoking Alchaholism Uncared Old Aged People Violation against Paniya Women Deforestation 230 9

4 Social Oppression and Exploitation Economic Exploitation by non-tribals Famine Alcoholism/ Drugs Bonded Labour System among Paniyas Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act Muthanga Incident: Landless Adivasi s Struggles for Survival 238 Chapter VI Religious Perspectives Introduction Paniya Religion Religion as the centre of Paniya Society Present Day Paniya Religion Some Important Characteristics of Paniya Religions The Paniya Religious Focus The Beliefs of Paniya Religion Belief in Gods and Goddesses Belief in the Spirit World Belief in Witchcraft and Magic Belief in Worship, Prayer and Sacrifice Beliefs of Paniyas Life after Death Soul Religious Practices Omens Taboos Ordeal Fetish Divination Ritual Healing Methods Scriptures Folklore Proverbs Legends Folk Song Music Dancing Arts Painting Rites Connected with Cycle of Life Festivals Religious Functionaries among the Paniyas Sanskritisation Paniya Religion and Hinduism

5 Chapter VII Social Change Perspectives Introduction Modernism, Technologies and Social Changes Population and Social Changes Education and Social Changes Sanskritisation and Social Changes Political Influences and Social Changes Changes in Social Structure Changes in the Media and Entertainments Changes in the Languages Changes in the Educational Status Changes in the Economic Status Changes in Economy Changes in Cultures Changes in Religious Life God Festivals Role of Paniya Priest Worship Changes in Food Habits Changes in the Custom of Wearing Ornaments Changes in the Customs Related to Child Birth Changes in the Customs of Dress Changes in Marriage Patterns Changes in the Health Care System Change in Occupation Changes in Music Instruments, Folk Songs 309 Case Studies 310 Test of Hypothesis 313 Chapter VIII Conclusion, Findings and Recommendations Conclusion Major Findings Recommendations Some of the Prime concerns

6 Bibliography 334 Appendices 344 Appendix -1 Interview Schedule Appendix -2 Photos Appendix -3 State Primary Census Abstract for Individual Scheduled Tribe Paniyan Appendix -4 Deployment of Paniya Population in Kannur Appendix -5 Maps Appendix -6 List of Paniya, Adiya, Kurichya Colonies in Kannur Appendix -7 Deployment of Tribal Population in Kannur i- xiii xiv-xx xxi xxii xxiii -xxiv xxv- xxviii xxix- xxxi 12