Agriculture The Basis of Civilization 1 Developed separately in three different parts of the world South-west Asia (Middle East) China Mesoamerica A major alteration of the ecosystem. Could provide much greater quantities of food. Made civilization possible. Agriculture 2 Population 10,000 years ago the human population was about 4 million; 5,000 years ago it was maybe 5 million. Then with agriculture, it began to double every millennium to reach 50 million by 1000 BCE. Then it grew to 100 million by 500 BCE. Then 200 million by 200 CE. 3
Irreversible Process The Agricultural Revolution: A transition from hunting and gathering that took place over thousands of years. Impossible to reverse. Much larger population could not be fed. All of the methods of agriculture were in use (somewhere) before 10,000 BCE. The revolution is the intensification of these methods. 4 Why was Agriculture Adopted? Agriculture was not easier than hunting & gathering. Much more effort was involved in clearing land, sowing, tending, and harvesting, and looking after domesticated animals. Food grown was not clearly more nutritious. Wild grains were often much more nutritious than cultivated ones. No greater security was guaranteed. Now humans had to depend on a small range of plants & animals. What it does is provide more food from less land. 5 Land Required to Feed One Person By hunting and gathering, 10 km 2 By dry farming (farming without irrigation), 0.5 km 2 By wet farming (farming with irrigation), 0.1 km 2 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 H-G Dry Wet Land 6
Old Views: Farming was obviously better: The advantages of agriculture were so obvious that as soon as it was discovered, all hunting and gathering ceased. Climate change forced the change to agriculture: But climates had changed before without a change in hunting and gathering. Moreover, the climate changes in SW Asia, China, and Mesoamerica would have been very different from each other. 7 Best Explanation: Increasing population pressure. Efforts made by hunting and gathering groups to limit population were not always successful. Usual solution: Excess population migrated. Eventually all suitable areas were occupied. World population of 4 million reached 10,000 years ago was perhaps the maximum sustainable on hunting and gathering. Once people turned to agriculture to get enough food, there was a surplus, the population continued to rise, and then there was no turning back. 8 Different Developments Each major area of the world where agriculture developed independently did it differently. With profound consequences for world history. Consider each in turn: 1. South-West Asia Beginning in the Middle East. More specifically in the Fertile Crescent. 2. China Beginning in the northern plains. 3. Mesoamerica Earliest evidence from Mexico. 9
The first area to transform to agriculture. The so called fertile crescent. A region corresponding to parts of present day Iraq, Iran, Israel, Palestine, Syria, Egypt, and south Anatolia (part of Turkey). South-West Asia 10 Wild Plants Available The region was rich in naturally occurring wild, edible plants. Hunters and gatherers had lived there for thousands of years, subsisting on some of the wild plants available. Wild progenitors of domesticated crops include: Wheat: from emmer and einkorn. Emmer: limited distribution. Einkorn in Anatolia. Barley: from a wild form of itself. Wild barley is widely distributed. Legumes, wild forms exist of: lentils, chickpeas, peas. Chickpeas in Anatolia. 11 Cultivation Wheat, the main crop, began as an edible wild grass, emmer, with seeds light enough to spread on their own in the wind and therefore self-cultivate. Emmer could be cultivated, however. Eventually a mutation arose, bread wheat,, with seeds so heavy that it had to be cultivated (but was much more nutritious). Emmer Bread wheat 12
Domestication of Wild Plants Emmer and wild barley are easily cultivated. Modern wheats,, peas, and lentils stem from only a very limited part of the wild stock. Domestication of plants only began because a small number of groups of people were forced to exploit less favourable resources. Early cultivated plants were well adapted to growing in disturbed and open sites, had relatively big seeds, germinated easily, grew quickly, and survived dry summers. Harvesting would naturally select seeds with less effective dispersal mechanisms (heavier seeds). 13 Domestication of Wild Animals First was the dog. Aborigines of Australia and New Guinea domesticaled dogs, perhaps before anyone else. Mainly for companionship and possible protection. Sheep were first domestication for economic reasons. Probably done before the domestication of crops. Sheep don t t compete directly with humans for food. They convert otherwise unusable grasses into meat. Goats and cattle do the same. Pigs do compete with humans and were not domesticated until 6500 BCE at the earliest. 14 When food production could support a larger, permanent population in a single area, towns emerged. By 6500 BC, Jericho, a walled town of ten acres, had developed. Towns 15
Basis of Settled Life Pottery was invented about 6000 BC. All the major crops and domesticated animals were fixed. No new ones for thousands of years. This was the basis of the spread of agriculture elsewhere. This way of life was based on growing wheat and barley and keeping herds of sheep, goats and later cattle. All the crops (except a type of einkorn) used in Europe came from South West Asia. Also the animals came from the same region. 16 Spread of Agriculture into Europe Movement of agriculture into central and NW Europe took another 3 millennia after its spread to Greece, because of different climate and soils. Elsewhere hunting and gathering continued. 17 Farming Techniques Swidden system slash and burn This was the basic system for clearing land and assuring fertile soil. It involved clearing climax temperate forests with stone axes and burning. Crops were planted in ash-enriched soil until yields began to fall. Then a new area was cleared and the abandoned area was allowed to revert to grass, awaiting further clearance decades later. 18
European Crops Different crops were grown in a northern climate: Oats and rye. Mediterranean areas grew crops such as: Olives, figs, grapes. Of these, only grapes moved north. 19 Later Domesticated Animals The dromedary and the camel were domesticated between 2000-1500 BC. 20 Later Domesticated Animals, 2 The horse, was domesticated shortly after 3000 BC. The horse revolutionized warfare. For thousands of years the Near East, China, India, and Europe were heavily influenced by waves of invading nomadic horsemen (e.g. Huns and Mongols) descending on settled societies. 21
This was the second area to develop agriculture. China 22 China Originally farming was established in the semi-arid loess plains of the north. Loess is a wind-borne soil of fine particles, easily worked. Soils were thick and had high mineral content. Most rain falls in the summer, making cultivation possible. Crops: Millet food for the masses. Rice (grown as a dry crop) food for the elite. Later rice was adapted to grow further south in wet paddy fields. 23 Main Difference of Chinese Agriculture In the other two regions, a balanced diet was based on a starchy cereal and legumes. In China, until soybeans were cultivated about 1100 BC, the diet was based on seed crops only. 24
Mesoamerica Encompassing Guatemala, Belize, some of Honduras, San Salvador, and Mexico. The last area to develop agriculture independently. Evidence comes from highland Mexico, where climate is dry enough to preserve plant remains. 25 Mesoamerica Until 6000 BC, all groups in the area were still hunting and gathering. They hunted rabbit and deer, and harvested nuts, beans, wild grasses, early maize, and squashes. First steps were small garden plots to grow previously wild plants. 30 plants grown for food, dyes, medicines, and containers (gourds). These included chili peppers, tomatoes, avocados, papaya, guava, 5 kinds of squash, gourds, and beans. Pumpkins were originally grown for their seeds until cultivation changed their bitter flesh into a sweet variety. 26 Why was Development Delayed? Lack of suitable animals for domestication. No sheep, goats, or cattle. Hunting animals remained a vital activity. Maize was originally a very small grain. No bigger than a human thumb. For at least 2000 years maize was chewed rather than ground. 27
The Development of Maize It is difficult to cross maize with other wild grasses. Not until 2000 BCE were bigger varieties developed. Maize cob sizes at roughly thousandyear intervals starting in 5000 BCE. 28 Why was Development Delayed, contd. For a long time, it was more economical to gather food than to grow it in Mesoamerica. Only around 2000 BC was productivity great enough to support village life. Hence complex societies began to develop 4000 years later in the new world. When Europeans arrived in XVI they found a society comparable to Mesopotamia in 2000 BCE. 29 Importance of Agriculture Agriculture was the most fundamental change in human history. Settled societies for the first time. No longer egalitarian. Specialization within society. Emergence of elites: religious, political, military. The state had the power to direct society. Root cause: Ownership of food. Concept of property. 30
Though agriculture takes a greater effort, the output of food is much higher, leading to a surplus. A surplus can be used to support individuals not engaged in food production. The Surplus Ancient Egyptian surplus grain being collected and stored in large urns. From a tomb mural. 31 The Surplus as the Key to Civilization Human history since agriculture has been about the acquisition and distribution of surplus food and its uses. Rising populations placed greater strain on food production. This required a form of government that could support infrastructure for more intensive farming. 32 Infrastructure Example of infrastructure:. Irrigation. Pictured are shadoofs devices to lift water from a river to an irrigation trench. A carving from Nineveh. 33
Social Hierarchies The priest class were at top of the elite. They controlled production and distribution to the entire community. 34 The Centre of Urban Life: The Temple Uruk in Mesopotamia. The temple was 225 feet long, 200 feet wide, 40 feet high. Regularly rebuilt, it required huge amounts of labour. The ruins of the Ziggurat, or Temple, at Uruk. 35 Uruk By 3500 BC Uruk was a substantial center with only small settlements around it. By 3000 it had a population of 50,000, and settlements around had fallen from 146 to 24. 36
Sumer By 3000 BCE southern Mesopotamia had become the land of Sumer. Sumer was dominated by 8 cities. 37 Organization of Sumerian Society Organization in cities was largely concerned with managing the food supply: Transportation, storage, re-allocation. The advance of society depended on greater surpluses. More surpluses allowed more people to work outside farming. 38 Organization of Sumerian Society, 2 Concept of property: Who owned the land, the food, the draught animals were now questions that arose. In early settlements, the temple seemed to own everything. E.g. in the temple at Shuruppak,, the temple records accounted for 9,660 donkeys. 39
Organization of Sumerian Society, 3 Class structure emerged, in ascending order: Slaves Peasants Craftsmen Administrative, religious & military elite 40 Organization of Sumerian Society, 4 Rivalry led to military conflict. The new importance of warfare and defense led to greater internal control. By 2500 BCE, land was owned by private individuals with large estates. Later, in the Babylonian empire (1800 BCE), there were legally separate classes of nobles, commoners, and slaves. 41 Technological Advances Smelting of copper by 6000 BCE. 42
Technological advances, 2 Wheel used for making pottery 4500 BCE. 43 Technological advances, 3 Wheel adapted for vehicles. All these advances required specialists who had to be fed by others. 44 Needed to keep accounts in the temples. First baked tablets with a fully developed script from Uruk. 85% of the 4000 tablets deal with economic matters. Illustrates overwhelming importance of centralized accounts. Writing 45
The Nile valley took over the agricultural system of the Near East and adapted it. This area had been occupied for 20,000 years before by hunting and gathering groups. Agriculture based on sheep, cattle and emmer was well established for hundreds of years before farmers moved into the Nile valley. Egypt 46 The annual flood came at right time of year. It was an easier environment than Mesopotamia. Hence large cities did not emerge (less need for management). Two great cities were Memphis and Karnak- Luxor. They were local markets and residences of officials rather than populous cities. Gift of the Nile 47 Indus Valley Settled by farmers moving east from SW Asia about 3500 BCE. Highly stratified society emerged to manage the food surplus. 48
Slower process than in Mesopotamia,. Egypt and the Indus valley. Due perhaps to slow development of irrigation system. China A Seed Drill. In China hundreds of years before being introduced in the West. 49 Japan Developed very late in world terms. Dependent on developments in China. Began farming about 1400 BC. Scope of farming limited because ¾ of land unsuitable. Swidden system. Kept population low. Fish a major part of diet. Only when rice became the main basis of subsistence was there substantially higher food production. 50 Americas Settled communities did not emerge until 2000 BCE, due to difficulties in developing better maize. Lacked animals for domestication. Wheel not developed because no animals to pull carts. 51
Americas, 2 When better maize developed and food production soared (and population too) large ceremonial centers developed (in Mexico). Required vast amount of human labour. Huge increase in social complexity and organization in the Classic period from 300-900 AD (when length of corn cob doubled). 52 Americas, 3 Centre was Teotihuacan. In the valley of Mexico, the population 100,000. Had enormous pyramids & plazas. An immense central power and a rigidly organized society. Empire collapsed about 700 AD. Replaced by the military empire of the Toltecs.. And then by the Aztecs, capital in Tenochtitlan (Mexico City). 53 Hawaii These islands were settled comparatively late, so their societies were at a comparatively earlier stage when first visited by Europeans. First settled about 500 AD by Polynesians. Probably no more than 50 original settlers. Brought with them the social structure of Polynesia: hereditary chiefs, religious rituals. This changed as population rose. 54
Hawaii, 2 By 1100 all the islands were settled. Villages existed and almost all were on the coasts. The population was about 20,000. Society was still simple and unstratified. Then a rapid rise in the population and expansion of settlement inland occurred. 55 Hawaii, 3 By 1400, all available land had been taken up. This produced major social problems. Previously conflicts were averted by younger sons of chiefs splitting off and setting up their own groups in another location. This was no longer possible. Revolts resulted. These conflicts were cxacerbated by crop failures as more and more marginal land had to be used. Population rose to 300,000 by end of the 18 th century. 56 Hawaiian Solution to Population Problem Individual chiefdoms replaced by a single ruler on each island. These big chiefs drew away from rest of society (married only into families of other chiefs). Enforced tribute to themselves (rather than to the gods). Took over commonly held land. Turned the peasants into tenants. Growing inter-island island warfare until 1795, when islands were conquered and united under a single ruler. Not long afterwards the society began to disintegrate with arrival al of Europeans. 57
Same story all over the world Surplus food fed religious and political elite and craftsmen. Redistribution of surplus required extensive control mechanisms. Led to powerful central institutions. Became self-reinforcing as elites grabbed more and more power. Imposed discipline with enforced labour for social projects and then in armies. Egalitarian societies replaced by class structures and huge differences in wealth. 58 Two Great Consequences of Agriculture for Society Civilization Art, architecture Writing, culture in general Philosophy and scientific knowledge All the great achievements Coercion Dictatorships Warfare Forced labour 59