When Worlds Collide The peopling of North America Why not Columbia? 16 th century explorer Amerigo Vespucci wrote to the Medici family about the wonders of the New World The letter was re-published throughout Europe Shortly after, many began to refer to the new world as America Nomenclature The word Indian was applied by Columbus, who thought the natives he encountered were the people of the East Indies Native american has problems First Peoples is slightly better Peoples in Motion Various peoples migrated to North America long before Europeans Ice age: Laurentide Glaciation Water in glaciers = Ergo, lower sea levels Areas now submerged were dry land Different Geographies Light blue areas were dry land at the last glacial maximum : dry land between Siberia & Alaska, now underwater 200-300 miles wide, it was home to generations of people Thought to be the principal route of migration to North America Other routes are likely, but probably not as heavily used Polynesians, Easter Island Solutrean Hypothesis Chinese navigators 1
Peoples in Motion Probably arrived in three waves First perhaps 20-25,000 years ago Middle a few thousand years later Last after 7,000 B.C. See: http://6000generations.wordpress.com/2014/08/31/ peopling-the-arctic/ Settling the Americas Migration patterns led the people southward into warmer climates. Most tribes lived by hunting & gathering Those who settled along the coast used boats made from animal skins for fishing Great Extinction & the Rise of Agriculture Earliest migrants found a number of large animal species Clovis-type spear point Folsom point the Rise of Agriculture Native lives were transformed by agriculture after 4000 B.C. (maybe earlier) Neolithic hunter-gatherer societies gradually adapted to permanent villages About 3,500 years ago Sex-segregated jobs within communities American Cornucopia Maize was one of the most important crops in the Americas Bred from wild grasses in central Mexican highlands Pumpkins & squash; chilies, beans, tomatoes, potatoes, peanuts all new types of crops the old world had never seen 2
The Three Sisters various types of maize were bred for different climates & soil types Beans were grown with the maize so the vines could climb the stalks beans also regenerated the soil, which helped the maize,, & were known as the Three Sisters Milpas A milpa was a field where crops (usually maize, beans, & squash) were planted all together Normally 2 years of planting & 8 lying fallow Milpas are still used throughout mesoamerica Chinampas In other locations, floating gardens called Chinampas were constructed using dredged soil from lakes & ponds on a mat of twigs Maize was planted & grew quite well Chinampas were fertile enough for three years of planting Terrace farming Terrace farming was used in regions where flat level land was not available (e.g., Incan empire) Stone walls would hold soil fill & allow farming on a stair stepped mountainside Domesticated Animals Early American populations had domesticated animals, but no large draft animals Llamas guinea pigs Muscovy duck Turkeys Dogs 3
Sedentary Cultures None of the most advanced cultures were migratory No individual ownership of land among any Indian society Despite increasing sophistication, Indian societies remained Stone Age Three distinct cultures Adena Ohio Hopewell Mississippian North American Mound Builders Adena Culture several related Pre-Columbian Native American societies known as early Woodland Period flourished ~1000 BC to 200 BC notable for agriculture, pottery, art, & trading network (from Great Lakes to the Gulf Coast) mostly in midwest (Ohio R. valley) shared a complex burial & ceremonial system Ohio Hopewell Several related cultures flourished in Ohio R. valley ~200 BCE to 500 CE (Middle Woodland period) related populations connected by network of trade routes: the Hopewell Exchange System Traded from southeastern US to the Canadian shores of Lake Ontario received exotic materials from all over the US shark and grizzly bear teeth, pearls, sea shells, copper, and small quantities of silver created some of the Americas finest craftwork & artwork: more varied than the Adena 4
Ohio Hopewell Burial mounds were large, 20-100+ feet high sometimes oriented to sun or stars graves contained necklaces, carvings, ceremonial pottery, ear plugs, & pendants Presumed to have religious significance circa 500 A.D. Hopewell trade ended, mound building stopped, art no longer produced numerous theories, but no one really knows why Mississippian Culture mound-building peoples flourished in the Midwest, East, & Southeast ~800 C.E. to 1500 C.E. Flat-top pyramid mounds usually square, rectangular, or occasionally circular Atop were houses, temples, burial buildings, etc. Maize-based agriculture Corn plus beans, squash, etc. Widespread trade networks From the Rockies to the Atlantic, & the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico institutionalized social inequality i.e., a stratified social structure some high-born, some low settlement hierarchy a major center (with mounds), surrounded by smaller, less important settlements lacked writing or stone structures if available, they could work metal (e.g. copper nuggets) 5
didn't smelt iron or make bronze Some scholars divide Mississippian cultures into three phases Middle Mississippian (1200-1400 C.E.) considered the high point Featured complex chiefdoms major urban centers (Cahokia, Moundville) widespread religious art & belief systems Cahokia Cahokia was the largest city north of Mesoamerica Its largest mound was some 10 stories high Late Mississippian (after ~1400) characterized by warfare, political turmoil, & population movement Cahokia broke up (circa 1350 1400) It was wracked by floods & earthquakes & finally lost its population By 1500, most populations were dispersed or under stress Further Information Moundville (Ala.) Archaeological Park http://moundville. ua.edu/ Hopewell Culture NHP (Ohio) http://www.nps.gov/hocu/index.htm 6
Southwestern American Cultures The Hohokam Lived in central Arizona, approx. 1 st century C.E. 1400 C.E. Sophisticated irrigation Manufactured cotton cloth & distinctive red pottery Declined around 1450 C.E., likely due to water shortages Anasazi The Anasazi lived in New Mexico & Colorado, ~100 C.E. to ~1500 C.E. Cliff-dwelling people Flourished for centuries, then began to decline in last quarter of 13th century Likely ancestors of modern Pueblo Indian tribes Mogollon The Mogollon lived in modern Az, NM, & northern Mexico ~200 C.E. to ~1450 C.E. Noted for large, partially underground Kivas Decline began in 12th century, collapsed by the middle of the 15th century Mesoamerica: Cycles of Cultures MesoAmerica: area from Central Mexico to El Salvador Includes cultures of the Maya, Aztec, and Olmec Initially, small settlements of around 1,000 people The Olmecs The Olmecs thrived ~1200-200 BCE Appear to have been hierarchical & dominated by Priest-Kings Jaguars played a significant role in their religious beliefs 7
The Olmecs practiced ritual blood letting & fierce games, loser dies The Olmecs language is uncertain Even the name Olmec is Nahuatl for rubber people What they called themselves, who knows The Olmecs died out around 200 bce, probably due to climate change, soil exhaustion, or war Toetihuacan Toetihuacan: in mountains outside of present-day Mexico City Zapotecan-speaking peoples established a large religious center with temples & decorated tombs at Teotihuacán had a substantial population In the center of Teotihuacán were pyramids built of sundried bricks & faced with stone by 450 C.E., population ~200,000 Larger than most cities in Europe known for brightly painted murals Governed by senate, not Monarch Suddenly destroyed around A.D. 550; reasons unclear The Aztecs and Tenochtitlan Aztecs: a warrior culture based in Central Mexico Waged perpetual war to gain captives for religious ceremonies Made many enemies among peoples of Mesoamerica Tenochtitlán: Aztec capital, in the middle of Lake Texcoco Lake Texcoco partially freshwater, partially brackish Aztecs built roads (causeways) across lake to Tenochtitlán Parts of lake were floating gardens called chinampas Very productive, multiple harvests per year 8
The City of Tenochtitlán Tenochtitlán was the largest Aztec city nearly 60,000 households with a possible total of 250,000 people On the central square stood the temple of Huitzilopochtli, which dominated the city skyline The city maintained a busy marketplace where individuals bought & sold a wide variety of items According to Cortés, nearly 60,000 people came daily Aztec Culture Aztecs demanded tribute from surrounding areas Neighboring peoples required to provide food, raw materials (gold, silver, turquoise, feathers) At time of European contact, ruled by Moctezuma (also called Montezuma) Religion & War in Aztec Society war was an article of religious faith Their religion devotion to it gave them advantages over more peaceful groups The polytheistic religion included the warrior god Huitzilopochtli The Aztec believed the sun needed human blood to be kept moving human sacrifice was a sacred duty Most victims were prisoners of war or hostages for sacrifice Priests who seemed able to understand omens had great power & respect Social Distinctions Among Aztecs Aztec society focused on violence When a male child was born, the umbilical cord was buried with arrows & a shield As they grew up, boys were trained in using spears, bows & arrows 9
Aztec warriors were raised to live on little food & sleep, & to accept pain without complaint Male status was based on his success as a warrior Women had lower status & were restricted to domestic duties Slaves were used extensively for road & temple construction & menial work Take-aways All societies in the Americas prior to 1492 are Pre- Columbian Some Exhibited a very high level of sophistication & accomplishment Calendars, astronomy, mathematics Take-aways Even so, pre-columbian peoples as of 1492 were Paleolithic (did not have iron or steel) did not use wheels, except on toys Often fought over food resources Had no immunity to European diseases 10