Ethnobotanical appraisal on wild edible plants used by the Monpa community of Arunachal Pradesh

Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol.16 (4), October 2017, pp. 626-637 Ethnobotanical appraisal on wild edible plants used by the Monpa community of Arunachal Pradesh Jambey Tsering 1,2, BJ Gogoi 3, Pallabi K Hui 4, N Tam 5 & Hui Tag 1 * 1 Department of Botany, Rajiv Gandhi University, Rono Hills, Doimukh- 791 112, Arunachal Pradesh, India; 2 Orchid Research Centre, Tipi, Bhalukpong- 790 114, Arunachal Pradesh, India; 3 Defence Research Laboratory, Post Bag No.2, Tezpur- 784001, Assam, India; 4 National Institute of Technology, District Papum Pare, Yupia- 791 112, Arunachal Pradesh, India; 5 State Forest Research Institute, Van Vihar, P B No-159, Itanagar- 791 111, Arunachal Pradesh, India E-mail: huitag2008rgu@gmail.com Received 16 August 2016, revised 15 September 2016 The present study based on ethnobotanical exploration deals with such aspects as documentation of traditional uses, diversity, distribution, threat status and marketing potentialities of wild edible plants consumed by the Monpa community of Arunachal Pradesh. A total of 187 wild edible species belonging to 137 genera of 76 families were documented, of which almost 82.88 % were recorded from subtropical to temperate region, 11.23 % from tropical areas and 5.88 % of the alpine meadows. Rosaceae (19 species) was the most dominant family distributed in high Montane slopes and temperate to sub-tropical forests of Tawang and West Kameng districts. Among genera, Berberis and Rubus were the most widely consumed genera with 06 species each. Fruits (77 species) happen to be the most common edible plant organ getting consumed mostly raw (81.81 %) whereas leaves and shoots are mostly cooked. As many as 48 wild edible species were found to be extensively exploited by the local residents from wild habitat for food, medicines, rituals, traditional paper making, firewood and construction work. Thirty-two species were found to have local market value and 08 species were identified to be facing high degree of threat in the study area. Twenty two plants are reporting for the first time as edible and many other plant uses are novel. Keywords: Wild edible plants, Monpa community, Arunachal Pradesh IPC Int. Cl. 8 : A61K 36/00, A47G 19/26, A47J 39/02 Arunachal Himalaya is a part of the East Himalayan biodiversity hotspot where hundreds of wild plants are collected daily by the native people and consumed along with staple crops 1. Arunachal Himalaya is particularly rich in biodiversity due to prevalence of varied physiographical, climatic and ecological zones. The Arunachal Himalayan region is the hub of wild food and medicinal plants. The region is rich in both the biodiversity as well as the traditional knowledge associated with it. It is the home of 26 major and 110 minor tribes, making it world s largest abode of variety of ethnic tribal groups 2-3. The Monpa is one such major tribal groups found in Tawang and West Kameng districts of Arunachal Pradesh with a population of approximately 1 lac as per the 2011 Census 4. The Monpas are good agriculturists and practice both shifting and settled farming systems. They also practice animal rearing, particularly sheep and yak (locally called as Brokpa) for living 5. Besides these, the Monpas use a *Corresponding author variety of wild plants in their diet as food, including vegetable, beverage, spice and oil. The Monpas are well versed with native flora and have developed various innovative practices on wild plant utilization 6. Pertinent literature being inadequate and preliminary, the present study seeks to appraise ethnobotanical uses and the diversity of wild edible plants consumed by the Monpa community of Arunachal Pradesh. Study area The study was conducted in Tawang and West Kameng districts of Arunachal Pradesh (India) which represents 11.35 % of the total geographical area of the state (83,743 km 2 ). Study site is located between 26 55' to 27 52 N latitudes and between 91 32 to 92 55' to E longitudes (Fig. 1) covering an area of 9,507 km 2 with elevations ranging from 200 m in the foothill region, which gradually ascends to about 7,750 m in the upper northern region. The entire region is steep mountainous terrain bounded by two international borders, China (Tibet) in the North and

TSERING et al.: WILD EDIBLE PLANTS USED BY THE MONPA COMMUNITY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH 627 Bhutan in the West. The vegetation can be broadly classified into 6 types: tropical semi-evergreen forest (300800 m), sub-tropical broad-leaved forest (8001800), pine forest (12002400 m), temperate broad-leaved forest (18002800 m), temperate coniferous forest (28003500 m) and alpine forest (above 3500 m) 7. The overall climatic condition of the study area is moderate and pleasant during the summer and extreme chill and biting cold are experienced during the winter. At altitude above 2500 m, chilling cold climate starts from early November and continues up to late February during which no agricultural crops are grown. Five major tribal communities inhibit the study area (the Monpa, Sherdukpen, Sajolang, Hrusso and Bugun). Among these tribes, the Monpa is the largest community in terms of population and area of inhabitance 5,8. Materials and methods Regular field trips in different rural areas of Tawang and West Kameng districts were conducted during the years 20102015 to investigate the ethnobotany of wild edible plants following the methods suggested by Martin 9 and Stepp 10. A total of 240 informants of different age groups were interviewed during field exploration in 96 villages and visits to 140 forest sites. The local markets were also visited to draw food values of wild plants. The key informants during the study were the farmers, village heads, herders and traditional hunters. Semi-structured questionnaire set was used to record the abundance and harvesting frequency of wild edible plants. Observance of abundance was measured at 05 levels (DAFOR scale), i.e., dominant, abundant, frequent, occasional and rare 11, whereas, harvesting frequency was identified at 03 levels (frequent, moderate and rare). The natural habitat of each species was visited and one or two voucher specimens were collected for Herbarium preservation following the method of Maden 12. The plants were identified with the help of specialists, relevant taxonomic literatures and e-flora websites. The plants were authenticated at the Botanical Survey of India (ARUN), Itanagar and deposited at Plant Systematic and Pharmacognosy Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh. Results Diversity of wild edible plants A total of 187 edible species belonging to 137 genera of 76 families have been identified which were Fig. 1 Location of study area collected from wild habitats linked with the Monpa community of Arunachal Pradesh (Table 1). The list of species includes 78 species of herbs, 48 species of trees, 47 species of shrubs, 12 species of climbers and 2 species of fungi (Auricularia auricula-judae and Ophiocordyceps sinensis). These two edible fungi species were included in our study due to their high market and cultural values. Rosaceae with 19 species was the most dominant family getting consumed in high mountain slopes and in temperate to sub-tropical forests. Some other dominant families were Asteraceae, Berberidaceae and Urticaceae (8 sp p. each), Polygonaceae (7 spp.), Brassicaceae and Rutaceae (6 spp. each), Ericaceae and Lamiaceae (5 spp. each). Berberis and Rubus represented the two largest genera with 06 species each. Almost 83 % of wild edible plants were traced from areas of subtropical (8001800 m) to temperate forests (18003500 m) and nearly 11 % of wild edible plants were of tropical origin (300800 m). At the altitude above 3500 m, which forms subalpine to alpine forests, only 06 % of wild edible plants received support out of a total 187 species. Among different plant parts used, fruit-diversity consumed was the highest with 77 species (41.18 %). Leaves, shoots and flowers of a good number of species were also recorded as edible. Stems, seeds, roots, tubers, nuts and barks were rarely reported as edible. Majority of fruits were raw edible (63 spp.). Leaves and shoots were mostly cooked for consumption. In case of flowers, approximately 50 % species were seen to be eaten raw and 50 % cooked (Fig. 2).

628 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 16, No. 4, OCTOBER 2017 Table 1 Current status and traditional uses of wild edible plants used by the Monpa community S No Botanical name & family Local name; 1 Acer campbellii Hook.f. & Shoblela (T) Thomson ex Hiern** JT/HT/047/2011 2 Achyranthes aspera L. JT/HT/380/2012 3 Acmella oleracea (L.) R.K. Marsang (W) Jansen JT/HT/277/2012 4 Actinidia callosa Lindl. Thum-mrep (T) JT/HT/066/2011 5 Allium cepa L. Tschong (T) JT/HT/435/2013 6 Allium hookeri Thwaites Maan (T) JT/HT/439/2013 7 Alnus nepalensis D. Don** Mhu-sheng (T) JT/HT/011/2011 8 Amaranthus spinosus L. Khutuka (H) JT/HT/355/2012 9 Amaranthus viridis L. Fara (T) JT/HT/077/2011 10 Amorphophallus paeoniifolius Khoebi (H) (Dennst.) Nicolson JT/HT/357/2012 11 Ardisia macrocarpa Wall. JT/HT/110/2011 12 Arisaema concinnum Wange (T) Schott JT/HT/045/2011 13 Asparagus racemosus Ngalangma (T) Willd.* JT/HT/418/2013 14 Aspidocarya uvifera Hook.f. & Thomson JT/HT/160/2012 15 Auricularia auricula-judae Morddu (T) (Bull.) J.Schrot. JT/HT/383/2012 16 Averrhoa carambola L. JT/HT/188/2012 17 Bauhinia variegata L. JT/HT/205/2012 18 Berberis angulosa Wall. Lae-kanchan (T) ex Hook.f. & Thomson* JT/HT/196/2012 19 Berberis aristata DC.* Kanchan (T) JT/HT/384/2012 20 Berberis asiatica Roxb. Kanchan (T) ex DC.* JT/HT/164/2012 21 Berberis chitria Buch.-Ham. Kanchan (T) ex Lindl. JT/HT/165/2012 22 Berberis insignis Hook.f. & Kanchan (T) Thomson** JT/HT/166/2012 23 Berberis macrosepala Kanchan (T) Hook.f. & Thomson ** JT/HT/167/2012 24 Betula cylindrostachya Lindl. Kokla (T) ex Wall.* JT/HT/064/2011 25 Bidens pilosa L. Rhobashing (W) JT/HT/499/2014 26 Bombax ceiba L. Pemagesar (B) JT/HT/417/2013 27 Calamus tenuis Roxb. Sha (H) JT/HT/360/2012 28 Cannabis sativa L. Nam-khuye (T) JT/HT/139/2011 29 Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Sog-karpu (B) Medik. JT/HT/177/2012 Family Elevation OA HF Traditional uses Sapindaceae 2000-2400 A Fermented tender leaves used as tea beverage (butter tea) Amaranthaceae 2300 F Tender leaves used as ingredient in curries Asteraceae 1600 F Young shoots eaten boiled, mostly preferred to gastritis patient Actinidiaceae 2400-3000 F Fruits edible Amaryllidaceae 4400 R Bulb eaten cooked Amaryllidaceae 2050 O Whole plant eaten raw as salad or cooked Betulaceae 1800-2600 D Fermented tender leaves used as tea beverage Amaranthaceae 1200-1600 O Tender shoots used as vegetable Amaranthaceae 1300-1600 F Tender shoots used as vegetable Araceae 800-900 O Tender leaves used as ingredient in curries Primulaceae 2100-2400 F Berries eaten raw Araceae 2100-2400 F Leached (boil) tubers serve as food Asparagaceae 1400-1600 O Fermented leaf used as tea beverage Menispermaceae 1000-1100 O Ripen fruits edible Auriculariaceae 3600-4100 O Mycelium used as vegetable Oxalidaceae 900-1000 O Fruits edible Fabaceae 1000-1500 O Tender leaves and flowers eaten cooked Berberidaceae 3600-3800 F Tender twigs and flowers eaten raw Berberidaceae 1900 F Flowers and tender twigs raw edible Berberidaceae 2100 F Flowers and berries eaten raw Berberidaceae 2800 F Ripen berries are raw edible Berberidaceae 2000-2200 F Tender shoots eaten raw Berberidaceae 2400-2500 F Flowers raw edible Betulaceae 2600-3200 O Potable water can be extracted from trunk Asteraceae 1800-2000 A Tender shoots eaten boiled Malvaceae 600 F Young petals cooked as vegetable Arecaceae 900 F Tender stem cooked as vegetable Cannabaceae 1600-2500 A Seeds raw edible Brassicaceae 2500-2900 F Whole plant is raw edible (Contd.)

TSERING et al.: WILD EDIBLE PLANTS USED BY THE MONPA COMMUNITY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH 629 Table 1 Current status and traditional uses of wild edible plants used by the Monpa community (Contd.) Botanical name & family Local name; Family Elevation OA HF Traditional uses 30 Cardamine hirsuta L. JT/HT/178/2012 31 Cardamine macrophylla Wang-hru (T) Willd. JT/HT/058/2012 32 Castanopsis indica Khe-shing (W) (Roxb. ex Lindl.) A.DC. JT/HT/256/2012 33 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Tselagorgor (S) JT/HT/098/2011 34 Chenopodium album L. Blamon (T) JT/HT/023/2011 35 Chlorophytum nepalense Taaprong (T) (Lindl.) Baker JT/HT/014/2011 36 Cinnamomum tamala (Buc h.- Shing-tsa (T) Ham.) T.Nees & Eberm. JT/HT/144/2012 37 Cirsium verutum (D.Don) Brongzom (T) Spreng.* JT/HT/090/2011 38 Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Chulukzapa (W) Swingle JT/HT/350/2012 39 Clausena excavata Burm.f. Hrila-sheng (T) JT/HT/084/2011 40 Clerodendrum glandulosum Shingebum (Sa) Lindl. JT/HT/257/2012 41 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Ngaglin (T,W) Schott JT/HT/076/2011 42 Coriaria nepalensis Wall. Wamdong (T) JT/HT/025/2011 43 Cornus capitata Wall. Namet (T) JT/HT/035/2011 44 Crassocephalum crepidioides Tamkahru, (Benth.) S.Moore Chopogon (T) JT/HT/028/2011 45 Cymbidium hookerianum Rchb.f. JT/HT/106/2011 46 Cynoglossum lanceolatum Sancharik (S) Forssk.* JT/HT/008/2011 47 Daphne papyracea Wall. Shugu-sheng (T) ex G. Don** JT/HT/089/2011 48 Debregeasia longifolia Yangyangpa (T) (Burm.f.) Wedd. JT/HT/038/2011 49 Decaisnea insignis (Griff.) Hook.f. & Thomson JT/HT/171/2012 50 Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Schee (S) Nees & Arn. ex Munro JT/HT/359/2012 51 Dillenia indica L. JT/HT/155/2012 52 Dillenia scabrella (D.Don) Roxb. ex Wall. JT/HT/156/2012 53 Dioscorea alata L. Sumchen (W) JT/HT/397/2012 54 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Peng-khe (T) JT/HT/385/2012 55 Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. Peng-khe (T) ex Griseb. JT/HT/398/2012 56 Diospyros malabarica Ambre (T) (Desr.) Kostel. JT/HT/086/2011 57 Diplazium esculentum Kukuling (T) (Retz.) Sw. 58 Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H.J.Lam JT/HT/043/2011 Finsheng (T) JT/HT/033/2011 Brassicaceae 1900-2500 A Leaves eaten raw or cooked Brassicaceae 3500-4000 R Tender shoots and leaves cooked as vegetable Fagaceae 1200 O Nuts edible Apiaceae 2000-2200 O Leaves eaten as salad or curries Amaranthaceae 1800-2400 F Tender shoots eaten raw or cooked Asparagaceae 1700-2500 O Young leaves eaten boiled Lauraceae 1900-2100 O Bark used as condiment Asteraceae 2200-3100 F Inflorescence edible and chewed during severe stomachache Rutaceae 2100 R Fruits are raw edible Rutaceae 1500 O Ripen fruits are edible Lamiaceae 1200-1700 O Leaves eaten as vegetable Araceae 1700-3100 D Whole part of the plant consumed cooked Coriariaceae 1600-1900 F Fruits edible, excess eating may cause dizziness Cornaceae 2000-2500 F Ripen fruits edible Asteraceae 1800-2000 F Fleshy leaves and tender stems eaten cooked Orchidaceae 4300 R Flowers cooked as vegetable Boraginaceae 2000-2500 A Leaves eaten raw or cooked. Roots chewed as mouth freshener Thymelaeaceae 2500-2800 A Ripen fruits edible. Bark used for making paper Urticaceae 2000-2500 A Ripen fruits edible Lardizabalaceae 1800-2000 O Fruits raw edible Poaceae 500-600 F Young shoots fermented and made into vegetable, condiment or pickles Dilleniaceae 600 O Fruit pulp edible, used as ingredient in curries and pickles Dilleniaceae 350-400 O Fruits raw edible Dioscoreaceae 1600-1800 O Tubers used as food, consumed either roasted or cooked Dioscoreaceae 1200-1400 O Tubers used as food Dioscoreaceae 2300 F Tubers used as food Ebenaceae 1600-2000 O Fruits edible Athyriaceae 300-3700 A Young frond used as vegetable Sapotaceae 1400-1600 R Ripen fruits edible. Seed oil used in cooking (Contd.)

630 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 16, No. 4, OCTOBER 2017 Table 1 Current status and traditional uses of wild edible plants used by the Monpa community (Contd.) Botanical name & family Local name; Family Elevation OA HF Traditional uses 59 Docynia indica (Wall.) Decne. Losu (W) JT/HT/207/2012 60 Drynaria propinqua So (T) (Wall. ex Mett.) Bedd.** JT/HT/068/2011 61 Elaeagnus parvifolia Gyam-mrep (T) Wall. ex Royle** JT/HT/326/2012 62 Elaeagnus umbellata Da-mrep (T) Thunb. JT/HT/010/2011 63 Elatostema cuneatum Wight Chulukpa (T) JT/HT/386/2012 64 Elatostema laetevirens Makino JT/HT/046/2011 65 Elatostema lineolatum Dambe-hru (T) Wight JT/HT/044/2011 66 Elatostema sessile J.R.Forst. Fambe-che (Sa) & G.Forst. JT/HT/387/2012 67 Euphorbia hirta L. Yowan (T) JT/HT/079/2011 68 Fagopyrum acutatum (Leh Temo (T) m.) Mansf. ex K.Hammer JT/HT/022/2011 69 Fagopyrum esculentum Dongthe (W) Moench JT/HT/388/2012 70 Ficus auriculata Lour. Choma (T) JT/HT/024/2011 71 Ficus racemosa L. Konangsing (W) JT/HT/259/2012 72 Ficus semicordata Buch.- Ridongsheng (T) Ham. ex Sm. JT/HT/113/2011 73 Fragaria daltoniana J.Gay Sa-mrep (T) JT/HT/208/2012 74 Fragaria nubicola (Lindl. Sa-mrep (T) ex Hook.f.) Lacaita JT/HT/061/2011 75 Fragaria vesca L. Sa-mrep (T) JT/HT/211/2012 76 Galinsoga quadriradiata Salugjang (W) Ruiz & Pav. JT/HT/395/2012 77 Gaultheria fragrantissima Shagsinmrep (T) Wall. JT/HT/073/2011 78 Gaultheria trichophylla Aak-mrep (T) Royle JT/HT/389/2012 79 Gentiana kurroo Royle** Panginmento (T) JT/HT/441/2013 80 Gentiana ornata (D.Don) Panginmento (T) Wall. ex Griseb.** JT/HT/454/2014 81 Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Oguma (H) Friis JT/HT/099/2011 82 Gonostegia hirta (Blume ex Pinrapa (T) Hassk.) Miq. JT/HT/007/2011 83 Herpetospermum pedunc- Prola-augun (T) ulosum (Ser.) C.B. Clarke JT/HT/042/2011 84 Holboellia latifolia Wall. Shulumba (T) JT/HT/018/2011 85 Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Mreptang (T) JT/HT/102/2011 86 Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. Othu (H) JT/HT/367/2012 87 Hypericum uralum Buch.- Jasheng (T) Ham. Ex. D.Don** JT/HT/501/2014 Rosaceae 2100 O Fruits edible Polypodiaceae 2000-2800 D Fleshy rhizome is edible Elaeagnaceae 2700-2900 F Ripen fruits edible Elaeagnaceae 2000-2700 D Ripen fruits edible Urticaceae 1600 A Tender leaves consumed as vegetable after proper leaching Urticaceae 1700-2000 A Tender leaves cooked as vegetable Urticaceae 1700-2000 A Tender shoots and leaves used as vegetable Urticaceae 2000 O Tender leaves consumed as vegetable Euphorbiaceae 1200-1600 F Young shoots cooked as vegetable Polygonaceae 2200-2400 A Leaves used as vegetable Polygonaceae 2000-2400 A Leaves and seeds used as food Moraceae 1600-1800 F Hypanthodium edible Moraceae 2000 O Hypanthodium raw edible Moraceae 1600-2100 F Ripen hypanthodium eaten raw, unripe hypanthodium eaten cooked Rosaceae 2100-2800 F Ripen fruits edible Rosaceae 1800-3100 A Ripen fruits edible Rosaceae 2600-3800 F Ripen fruits edible Asteraceae 2200-2600 A Young shoots consumed as salad or curries Ericaceae 2000-2800 A Fruits raw edible Ericaceae 3400-3800 F Ripen fruits edible Gentianaceae 3800-3900 A Flowers cooked as vegetable Gentianaceae 4000-4100 F Flowers cooked as vegetable Urticaceae 1200-2200 F Young shoots cooked as vegetable Urticaceae 1900-2200 F Young leaves cooked as vegetable Cucurbitaceae 1800-2100 A Fruits cooked as vegetable Berberidaceae 2000-2900 F Ripen fruits edible Saururaceae 1500-2400 A Leaves and roots consumed raw or cooked, also used as condiment Araliaceae 1000-2200 F Shoots consumed either raw as salad or cooked as vegetable Hypericaceae 2500-2800 F Fermented leaves used as tea beverage (Contd.)

TSERING et al.: WILD EDIBLE PLANTS USED BY THE MONPA COMMUNITY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH 631 Table 1 Current status and traditional uses of wild edible plants used by the Monpa community (Contd.) Botanical name & family Local name; Family Elevation OA HF Traditional uses 88 Illicium griffithii Hook.f. & Thomson Munshing (W) JT/HT/157/2012 89 Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Yengjoktang (W) JT/HT/264/2012 90 Juglans regia L. Kae (T, W) JT/HT/002/2011 91 Lepidium virginicum L. JT/HT/179/2012 92 Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link Neachetse (H) JT/HT/265/2012 93 Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers. Nge (T) JT/HT/017/2011 94 Magnolia campbellii Hook.f. Wanggung (T) & Thomson** JT/HT/105/2011 95 Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre** JT/HT/159/2012 96 Mahonia napaulensis DC. Tsot-sheng (T) JT/HT/127/2011 97 Maianthemum purpureum Yoh (T) (Wall.) LaFrankie JT/HT/059/2011 98 Malus sikkimensis (Wenz.) I-K-malang (S) Koehne ex C.K.Schneid. JT/HT/213/2012 99 Malva parviflora L. Boecham (B) JT/HT/343/2012 100 Malva verticillata L. Boecham (B) JT/HT/187/2012 101 Meconopsis paniculata (D. Don) Prain** JT/HT/062/2011 102 Melastoma malabathricum L. JT/HT/232/2012 103 Mentha arvensis L. JT/HT/034/2011 104 Musa acuminata Colla Lamraep (T) JT/HT/136/2011 105 Musa balbisiana Colla Wegoin (H) JT/HT/396/2012 106 Mussaenda roxburghii Lebathu (H) Hook.f. JT/HT/244/2012 107 Nasturtium officinale R.Br. Silang-sag (W) JT/HT/031/2011 108 Nepeta connata Royle ex Benth.* JT/HT/003/2011 109 Oenanthe javanica (Blume) Szhing-hru (T) DC. JT/HT/140/2011 110 Onosma hookeri C.B. Clarke Grimakpa (T) JT/HT/400/2012 111 Ophiocordyceps sinensis Yartsagunbu (T) (Berk.) G.H. Sung, et al JT/HT/390/2012 112 Ophiopogon intermedius D. Domseu (T) Don** JT/HT/016/2011 113 Opuntia monacantha (Willd.) Haw.* JT/HT/235/2012 114 Oroxylum indicum (L.) Salsali (T) Kurz JT/HT/333/2012 115 Oxalis acetosella L. JT/HT/190/2012 116 Oxalis corniculata L. Pulungsukhu (H) JT/HT/100/2011 Schisandraceae 2400-2500 D Fruits used as condiment in food and tea Convolvulaceae 1500 O Tubers used as food Juglandaceae 1600-2400 F Nut edible Brassicaceae 1500 O Seeds used as condiment. Tender leaves eaten as salad Lamiaceae 300-500 F Tender shoots consumed cooked Lauraceae 2200-2500 A Fruits raw edible and used as condiment Magnoliaceae 2700-2900 A Flower buds boiled as vegetable Magnoliaceae 1200 O Fruits edible Berberidaceae 1200 2200 F Berries edible Asparagaceae 3500-3700 A Fleshy tender shoots consumed as vegetable Rosaceae 1900 2000 O Fruits edible Malvaceae 1200 1300 F Tender leaves eaten cooked Malvaceae 2000 2800 F Tender leaves eaten cooked Papaveraceae 2800 3900 D Flowers, leaves and tender stems eaten cooked. Seeds raw edible Melastomataceae 1200 1300 F Fruits are edible, excess eating may cause irritation Lamiaceae 2000 R Leaves used as condiment or salad Musaceae 1200-1600 F Ripen fruits and tender stem raw edible. Flower bud used as vegetable Musaceae 1100-1300 A Inflorescence used in curries. Tender stem raw edible Rubiaceae 1400-2800 A Young leaves eaten cooked, white bracts are preferred Brassicaceae 1200-3000 A Shoots eaten cooked Lamiaceae 2300-3000 A Flowers and seeds raw edible Apiaceae 1900-3000 D Tender shoots eaten as salad or curries Boraginaceae 3000-4000 O Edible red dye is obtained from driedroasted stem Ophiocordycipitace 3800-3900 O Whole part is raw edible ae Asparagaceae 1800-2400 F Fruits and tubers are fleshy and sweet, eaten raw Cactaceae 1600 F Flowers eaten cooked Bignoniaceae 500-1200 F Flowers and tender leaves eaten cooked Oxalidaceae 2000-2600 O Tender shoots is edible Oxalidaceae 2000-2600 F Leaves eaten cooked or as salad (Contd.)

632 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 16, No. 4, OCTOBER 2017 Table 1 Current status and traditional uses of wild edible plants used by the Monpa community (Contd.) Botanical name & family Local name; Family Elevation OA HF Traditional uses 117 Oxalis debilis Kunth JT/HT/192/2012 118 Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill Lugsho (B) JT/HT/432/2013 119 Oxyspora paniculata (D. Don) DC. JT/HT/233/2012 120 Paederia foetida L. Shejlaojneya (H) JT/HT/372/2012 121 Panax bipinnatifidus Seem. JT/HT/240/2012 122 Persicaria chinensis (L.) Jampera (H) H. Gross JT/HT/374/2012 123 Phyllanthus emblica L. Kyurba (T) JT/HT/112/2011 124 Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Hro-sheng (T) Vriese* JT/HT/146/2012 125 Pinus wallichiana Hro-sheng (T) A.B.Jacks.* JT/HT/145/2012 126 Piper longum L. Likadu (W) JT/HT/351/2012 127 Plantago major L. Tharam (T) JT/HT/103/2011 128 Pogostemon amaranthoides Benth. JT/HT/392/2012 129 Polygala arillata Buch.- Ham. ex D. Don JT/HT/391/2012 130 Polygonum molle D. Don Chomcha (T) JT/HT/065/2011 131 Polygonum perfoliatum L. Achajay (H) JT/HT/375/2012 132 Potentilla lineata Trevir. Gyoumrep (T) JT/HT/215/2012 133 Potentilla peduncularis Penma (T) D.Don** JT/HT/141/2011 134 Prunus domestica L. Plum (T) JT/HT/001/2011 135 Prunus persica (L.) Batsch Glae (T) JT/HT/216/2012 136 Prunus simonii (Decne.) Glae (T) Carrisre JT/HT/036/2011 137 Psidium guajava L. Baghanse (W) JT/HT/492/2014 138 Pteridium esculentum Ta (T) (G. Forst.) Cockayne JT/HT/131/2011 139 Punica granatum L. Dalemshing (W) JT/HT/226/2012 140 Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. Ja-toh (T) ex D. Don JT/HT/057/2011 141 Quercus griffithii Hook.f. & Pa-sheng (T) Thomson ex Miq.** JT/HT/009/2011 142 Quercus semecarpifolia Kethcheng (T) Sm.** JT/HT/067/2011 143 Ranunculus cantoniensis DC. JT/HT/154/2012 144 Rhamnus napalensis (Wall.) M.A. Lawson JT/HT/200/2012 145 Rhamnus virgata Roxb. JT/HT/201/2012 Oxalidaceae 1300 F Whole plant is cooked as vegetable Polygonaceae 3600-4000 F Leaves eaten raw or cooked Melastomataceae 800-2200 O Tender stems just beneath the bark are edible Rubiaceae 1200-1300 O Young leaves boiled as vegetable Araliaceae 3000-4000 R Ripen fruits are edible Polygonaceae 1400-2200 F Leaves boiled as vegetable Phyllanthaceae 1400-1600 O Fruits raw edible Pinaceae 2200-2500 D Tender layers of stem just beneath the bark is edible Pinaceae 1500-2200 D Same as Pinus merkusii Piperaceae 300-600 A Fruits used as food or tea condiment, leaves as vegetable Plantaginaceae 1200-3000 A Leaves eaten as raw or cooked Lamiaceae 2300-2400 O Young shoots cooked as vegetable Polygalaceae 2000 R Leaves used as fermentation starter during alcohol production Polygonaceae 2000-3600 D Stem edible Polygonaceae 1700-1900 O Leaves used in chutney preparation Rosaceae 2400-3000 D Roots chewed as mouth freshener Rosaceae 3500-4200 A Rhizomes edible and chewed as mouth freshener Rosaceae 2100 O Ripen fruits are edible Rosaceae 2900 O Ripen fruits and seeds are edible Rosaceae 2100-2200 F Ripen fruits and seeds are edible Myrtaceae 400 O Fruits edible Dennstaedtiaceae 1600-3200 D Tender shoots eaten as vegetable after prolonged boiling Lythraceae 1600 R Fruits edible Rosaceae 1600-1800 A Fruits raw edible. Autumn leaves used as tea beverage Fagaceae 1600-2500 D Seed flour adulterate with cereal flour and cooked Fagaceae 2000-3000 D Same as Quercus griffithii Ranunculaceae 1500-2200 O Young leaves are boiled and consumed Rhamnaceae 1600-1800 F Fruits are edible Rhamnaceae 800-900 O Leaves eaten cooked (Contd.)

TSERING et al.: WILD EDIBLE PLANTS USED BY THE MONPA COMMUNITY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH 633 Table 1 Current status and traditional uses of wild edible plants used by the Monpa community (Contd.) Botanical name & family Local name; Family Elevation OA HF Traditional uses 146 Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Samu (W) JT/HT/005/2011 147 Rhododendron keysii Taam (T) Nutt.** JT/HT/063/2011 148 Rhus succedanea L. Woorsheng (T) JT/HT/050/2011 149 Ribes orientale Desf. Saekod (T) JT/HT/070/2011 150 Ricinus communis L. Dantha (B) JT/HT/366/2012 151 Rosa omeiensis Rolfe Sae (T) JT/HT/218/2012 152 Rosa sericea Wall. Sae (T) ex Lindl. JT/HT/052/2011 153 Rubus assamensis Focke Retsu (T) JT/HT/097/2012 154 Rubus biflorus Buch.-Ham. Bla-mrep (T) ex Sm. JT/HT/221/2012 155 Rubus buergeri Miq. Retsu (T) JT/HT/039/2011 156 Rubus ellipticus Sm. Kong-mrep (T) JT/HT/051/2011 157 Rubus niveus Thunb. Bla-mrep (T) JT/HT/027/2011 158 Rubus pedunculosus Bla-mrep (T) D.Don JT/HT/055/2011 159 Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Shomang (T) JT/HT/126/2011 160 Salix sikkimensis Shibdu (T) Andersson** JT/HT/393/2012 161 Salix sinica (K.S. Hao ex C.F. Shibdu (T) Fang & A.K. Skvortsov) G.H. JT/HT/394/2012 Zhu** 162 Salix wallichiana Shibdu (T) Andersson** JT/HT/054/2011 163 Sambucus adnata Wall. Wamdong (T) ex DC.* JT/HT/092/2011 164 Saurauia roxburghii Wallich JT/HT/185/2012 165 Schisandra grandiflora Dhatik (T) (Wall.) Hook.f. & Thomson JT/HT/158/2012 166 Scurrula elata (Edgeworth) Nyenginmrep (T) Danser JT/HT/019/2011 167 Senecio scandens Buch.- Serkiling (T) Ham. ex D.Don** JT/HT/498/2014 168 Solanum americanum Mill. Faysuk (H) JT/HT/377/2012 169 Solanum anguivi Lam. Kharangeh (W) JT/HT/275/2012 170 Solanum rudepannum Akapu (H) Dunal JT/HT/276/2012 171 Solanum torvum Sw. Kharangjeh (W) JT/HT/488/2014 172 Sonchus wightianus DC. JT/HT/339/2012 173 Spilanthes acmella (L.) L. Namlang (S) 174 Syzygium nervosum A.Cunn. ex DC. JT/HT/319/2012 JT/HT/230/2012 Ericaceae 2600-3300 D Flowers eaten raw or cooked. Tender leaves consumed cooked Ericaceae 3200-3400 R Flowers raw edible, pollens are sweet Anacardiaceae 1400-1900 F Fruit oil used in cooking Grossulariaceae 3400-3500 O Ripen fruits eaten raw Euphorbiaceae 300-2000 A Seed oil used in curries Rosaceae 3800 R Ripen fruits are eaten Rosaceae 3000-4000 A Fruits raw edible, used as digestive Rosaceae 2600 F Ripen fruits edible Rosaceae 3000-3500 F Ripen fruits edible Rosaceae 1600 F Ripen fruits edible Rosaceae 2000-2800 F Fruits edible Rosaceae 2000-2200 F Ripen fruits edible Rosaceae 3200-3600 F Ripen fruits edible Polygonaceae 2000-3500 A Leaves consumed cooked Salicaceae 1900-2100 F Catkins are chewed, sweet in taste Salicaceae 2700-3000 F Catkins are chewed, sweet in taste Salicaceae 2400 F Catkins are chewed, sweet in taste Adoxaceae 2000-3000 A Ripen fruits edible Actinidiaceae 500 F Ripen fruits edible Schisandraceae 2600 O Fruits raw edible Loranthaceae 2400-2800 F Fruits eaten raw. Tender shoots used as tea beverage Asteraceae 2400-3000 F Flowers and young leaves used as vegetable Solanaceae 1200-1400 O Young fruits eaten fried or boiled Solanaceae 1800 O Fruits consumed cooked as vegetable Solanaceae 600-800 R Fruits consumed cooked Solanaceae 2000-2100 F Fruits and flowers used as vegetable Asteraceae 2400 O Young leaves eaten raw Asteraceae 800 F Shoots consumed cooked Myrtaceae 400 O Fruits edible (Contd.)

634 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 16, No. 4, OCTOBER 2017 Table 1 Current status and traditional uses of wild edible plants used by the Monpa community (Contd.) Botanical name & family Local name; Family Elevation OA HF Traditional uses 175 Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Tae-sheng (T) JT/HT/147/2012 176 Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Baru (T) Roxb. JT/HT/229/2012 177 Terminalia catappa L. JT/HT/228/2012 178 Terminalia chebula Retz. Aru (T) JT/HT/210/2012 179 Thamnocalamus spathiflorus Rue (T) (Trin.) Munro JT/HT/138/2011 180 Thlaspi arvense L. JT/HT/180/2012 181 Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Wusu (T) Sprague JT/HT/239/2012 182 Urtica dioica L. Shouzhe (T) JT/HT/111/2011 183 Vaccinium glaucoalbum Shakshima (T) Hook. f. ex C.B. Clarke JT/HT/219/2012 184 Zanthoxylum acanthopodium Yerchengma (T) DC. JT/HT/074/2011 185 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Yer (T) JT/HT/069/2011 186 Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Prayer (T) Edgew. JT/HT/094/2011 187 Zanthoxylum rhetsa DC. Mechme (H) JT/HT/199/2012 Taxaceae 2400-3200 O Flowers raw edible Combretaceae 1300-1400 O Fruits edible Combretaceae 400 O Seed kernel is edible Combretaceae 1200-1600 O Fruits edible Poaceae 2200-2900 D Fermented tender shoots used as vegetable or spice Brassicaceae 2000-2400 A Tender leaves used as spice Apiaceae 2600 O Fruits used as spice Urticaceae 2000-3000 D Tender stems and leaves consumed cooked as vegetable Ericaceae 2600-3200 A Ripen fruits edible Rutaceae 2100-2900 F Fruits raw edible. Tender leaves consumed cooked Rutaceae 1800-2400 A Fruit raw edible. Dried fruits used as condiment or spice Rutaceae 2000-2800 F Fruits used as ingredients for smoking Rutaceae 1600-2000 F Leaves and seeds used as spice Legend: : Voucher specimen number; OA: Observance of Abundance; HF: Harvesting Frequency; *: Plants with new uses; **: New record of edible plant; T: Tawang Monpa; W: West Kameng Monpa; S: Sherdukpen; H: Hrusso; Sa: Sajolang; B: Brokpa; D: Dominant; A: Abundant; F: Frequent; O: Occasional; R: Rare; : Rare collection; : Moderate collection; : Frequent collection Fig. 2 Mode of consumption of different plant parts Observance of abundance and harvesting frequency Wild food plants were frequently sighted in all the study sites. Based on respondent information and field observation 17 species were found to be dominant in several forest areas, 37 were abundant, 69 frequent, 52 occasional and 12 rare (Table 1). 48 species were found to be extensively collected by local residents during harvesting season, another 48 species were reported to be moderately collected and 91 species were rarely collected. Extensively collected species include some common wild vegetables, e.g. Amaranthus viridis, Chenopodium album, Colocasia esculenta and Diplazium esculentum. 15 wild edible plants were seen to be extensively collected not for consumption but for other uses, such as for medicines, rituals, traditional papermaking, fire wood and for constructions. Threat status Out of 187, no less than 8 wild edible species could be seen to face high degree of threat in the study area from irrational harvesting, high frequency of collection, habitat loss and high demand within and outside the locality. This includes Asparagus racemosus, Cinnamomum tamala, Daphne papyracea, Diploknema butyracea, Onosma hookeri, Ophiocordyceps sinensis, Panax bipinnatifidus and Taxus wallichiana. As per the IUCN Red list of threatened species, only 03 plants (out of 187) were categorized under the threat list, viz. Juglans regia (near threatened), Pinus merkusii (vulnerable) and Taxus wallichiana (endangered). However, in the study site, all these species were found abundantly distributed in different locations.

TSERING et al.: WILD EDIBLE PLANTS USED BY THE MONPA COMMUNITY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH 635 Market potential Market survey revealed that 32 species have local market values getting sold as beverage (Pyrus pashia); spices (Litsea cubeba, Zanthoxylum armatum and Z. rhetsa); fruits (Cornus capitata, Diospyros malabarica, Elaeagnus umbellata, Ficus auriculata, Phyllanthus emblica, Prunus domestica, P. simonii, Psidium guajava and Punica granatum), and vegetables (Amaranthus viridis, Auricularia auriculajudae, Centella asiatica, Chenopodium album, Clerodendrum glandulosum, Colocasia esculenta, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Dillenia indica, Dioscorea deltoidea, Diplazium esculentum, Elatostema lineolatum, Fagopyrum acutatum, Gonostegia hirta, Houttuynia cordata, Maianthemum purpureum, Oenanthe javanica, Piper longum, Solanum americanum and Spilanthes acmella). Novel findings Through thorough scrutiny of literature it could be confirmed that edible uses of 22 plant species recorded in the present work are new reports which includes Acer campbellii, Alnus nepalensis, Berberis insignis, Berberis macrosepala, Daphne papyracea, Drynaria propinqua, Elaeagnus parvifolia, Gentiana kurroo, Gentiana ornata, Hypericum uralum, Magnolia campbellii, Magnolia champaca, Meconopsis paniculata, Ophiopogon intermedius, Potentilla peduncularis, Quercus griffithii, Quercus semecarpifolia, Rhododendron keysii, Salix sikkimensis, Salix sinica, Salix wallichiana and Senecio scandens. Six species are presented in Fig. 3. Further, 12 species with additional uses concerning edibility are also reported. Discussion The present study has revealed that wild edible plants play an important role as a supplementary diet for the local tribal communities of Tawang and West Kameng Districts of Arunachal Pradesh. Wild edible plants of the study area also support the local economy and livelihood since majority of the poor villagers and women earn their family income through selling of wild vegetables and fruit products in the nearby local markets. It was observed that in recent years there has been a considerable change in the tribal culture so that now a large section of them depend on imported crops. However, the use of wild edible plant is still continued as and when they are available. The analysis reveals that out of 187 species, 41.18 % species harvested are consumable fruits while 22.99 % species harvested are leafy shoots. Similar results were also reported from other regions of the Himalaya 13-16. This indicates the rich gene pool diversity of wild fruits and leaves in the region that confers scopes for further agro-horticultural and biotechnology research in the region by targeting commercially viable wild edible fruit and leaf plants Fig. 3 Some novelty in use pattern of wild edible plants a. Hypericum uralum; b. Magnolia campbellii; c. Potentilla peduncularis; d. Meconopsis paniculata; e. Rhododendron keysii; f. Senecio scandens)

636 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 16, No. 4, OCTOBER 2017 for ensuring sustainable economic and livelihood security of the local residents. Several literature of relevance have also brought into light similar results from the Himalayan regions 17-21. Due to easy accessibility and availability of wild edible plants, market potential within the locality had no boost till date as people directly collect plants from the wild. However, awareness campaign on the commercial significance of such valuable botanical resources is likely to change in current demand and supply trends of wild edible plants in the local and regional markets. No less than 8 wild edible species were identified as plants facing a high degree of threat perception. Apart from the food values, the locally threatened species possess medicinal as well as cultural values for which they are collected in large amounts from wild habitats. Such plants, therefore, need urgent prioritization for conservation for obtaining goods and services and ecological stability. However, IUCN is yet to conduct a threat assessment on 7 out of the 8 locally threatened species identified. The result of harvesting frequency indicates that at least 25.67 % (48 out of total 187 species) are the potential species that contribute to the sustenance of local economy and have potential to ensure livelihood security to the local populace. Finding 22 plant species for the first time as edible is certainly inspiring to other researchers in carrying ethnobotanical studies in unexplored areas. Gentiana kurroo which is a well-known medicinal plant and Daphne papyracea regarded earlier as poisonous plant were found edible, which suggest that there are still lots of hidden traditional knowledge which need to be documented. Acorn of Quercus griffithii and Quercus semecarpifolia with its anti-appetite like property can be used as major ingredients for development of functional and anti-obesity food products. Besides, the traditional beverage plants such as Acer campbellii, Alnus nepalensis, Asparagus racemosus, Hypericum uralum, Pyrus pashia and Scurrula elata can also be earmarked as future prospecting plants. The present study also noted that the traditional knowledge surviving in traditions and oral transmission through generations is declining both in urban and rural areas, for which there is an urgent need to document the knowledge on war footing for serving future generations through sustainable utilization and conservation of biological resources. Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge local informants of Tawang and West Kameng districts of Arunachal Pradesh for sharing traditional knowledge and their active participation during the field study. The authors also acknowledge CPEB-II, Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar for providing laboratory facilities. The first author is grateful to the University Grants Commission, Delhi for providing National Fellowship for Higher Education of ST Students and also to PCCF-cum-Principle Secretary, Department of Environment and Forests, Government of Arunachal Pradesh for providing encouragement and facilities during the work. 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