Sumerian Civilization

3 Sumerian Civilization How did geography affect the development of the Sumerian civilization? What were the achievements of the Sumerian people? What was life like in Sumerian society? The Main Idea The Fertile Crescent gave rise to the Sumerian civilization in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley. The Story Continues Almost 4,000 years ago in the town of Sumer, a father gave his son the advice that would be repeated by fathers throughout history: Go to school, stand before your school-father, recite your assignment... After you have finished your assignment... come to me.... Don t stand about in the public square, or wander about the boulevard. The story of the Sumerians shows how early peoples of the Fertile Crescent passed their cultures on to future generations. cuneiform arch ziggurats city-state The Fertile Crescent remains an area of conflict today. Use or other current event sources to explore conflicts between presentday nations in that region. Record your findings in your journal. The Land: Its Geography and Importance The story of ancient Egypt describes one people living in one place for centuries. A very different story developed in southwestern Asia, another cradle of early civilization. Unlike Egypt, this area was not geographically isolated. Wave upon wave of invaders crisscrossed the land. A strip of fertile land begins at the Isthmus of Suez and arcs through Southwest Asia to the Persian Gulf. The land within this crescent-shaped area is so well suited to farming that it is known as the Fertile Crescent. Between 5000 B.C. and 4000 B.C., Neolithic farmers began to build an identifiable civilization in the Fertile Crescent. Their society was built around the cooperation necessary to control floodwaters and to irrigate fields. The Fertile Crescent, c. 3000 B.C. Interpreting Maps Early civilizations thrived in Mesopotamia, in the heart of the Fertile Crescent. Skills Assessment: Physical Systems According to the map, what type of geographic feature was common to the locations of the earliest Mesopotamian cities? 30 CHAPTER 2

The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers are major geographical features of the Fertile Crescent. Both rivers begin in the hills of what is now Turkey and flow southeast. At one point the two rivers lie within 30 miles of each other. They then spread apart until the valley between them the Tigris-Euphrates Valley widens to about 250 miles. The Tigris-Euphrates Valley has been known by many names, including Mesopotamia. The southeastern part of the valley has usually been called Babylonia. Both the Tigris and the Euphrates overflow often, sending floodwaters swirling over the surrounding land. People must build canals and dikes to bring water to their fields and to return water to the river after floods. Unlike the Nile flood, the flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates cannot be easily predicted. It may come anytime between the beginning of March and the end of June. The size of the flood also varies. Not surprisingly, the early people of the valley viewed nature and the gods as harsh and unpredictable. As with the Nile Valley, the Fertile Crescent was surrounded by dry lands and mountains. They were not as barren as those around Egypt, however. Tribes of wandering herders lived off the grasses and other plant life there. They often invaded the valley, conquered it, and established empires. Over time, these invaders grew weak and new waves of invaders conquered them. This pattern makes the history of the Fertile Crescent a story of repeated migration and conquest. A priest described the results of one such invasion. The [invading herders] have set fire to the [crop lands surrounding several Sumerian villages]. They have carried away the silver and precious stones. They have shed blood in the palace of [the local Sumerian ruler].... They have removed the grain from [Sumerian fields and villages], all of it that was under cultivation. Priest of Lagash, from The Sumerians READING CHECK: Contrasting How did the geography of the Fertile Crescent differ from that of ancient Egypt? Identifying Cause and Effect How might their fear of the destruction described by the priest have affected the river valley people? Sumer and Its Achievements As the Tigris and Euphrates flow to the Persian Gulf, they carry rich soil. In ancient times, particularly fertile soil covered the lower part of the Tigris- Euphrates Valley. Neolithic people settled in this area, called Sumer (SOO muhr), and grew crops. Over time, they created what we call Sumerian culture. We do not know much about the origins of the Sumerians. A group of nomadic people probably migrated to Sumer and mingled with the people already there. By 3000 B.C. these people used metal and had developed a kind of writing called pictographs, or picture writing. Sumerian pictographs are one of the earliest known forms of writing. Sumerian writing. Sumerian writing was different from Egyptian writing. Egyptian hieroglyphics were symbols carved on stone or written on paper. The papyrus reed that Egyptians used to make paper did not grow in Sumer, however. Sumerians wrote by pressing marks into clay tablets. Writers used a wedge-shaped tool called a stylus. As a result, most signs were wedge shapes. Today we call Sumerian writing cuneiform (kyooh NEE uh fawrm), from the Latin word for wedge, cuneus. Cuneiform writing developed from pictographic writing. Sumerians had about 600 cuneiform signs. Sumerian writing The cuneiform above, carved on a clay tablet with a stylus, dates from about 2400 B.C. In what way does this writing reflect the tools used by the Sumerians? THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS 31

Builders constructed the Chogha Zanbīl ziggurat in the Khūzestān province of presentday Iran in about 1250 B.C. Architecture and science. The Sumerians may also have invented several important architectural designs. The arch, a curved structure over an opening, is one of the strongest forms in building. By combining several arches, the Sumerians built rounded roofs in the shape of domes or vaults. The most striking Sumerian buildings were the temples, known as ziggurats. Like other Sumerian buildings, ziggurats were made of baked brick placed in layers. The ziggurats looked something like a wedding cake. Each could be up to 150 feet high. The top served as a shrine to a Sumerian god. The Sumerians may have been the first people to develop and use the wheel. In mathematics, they used a system of numbers based on 60. For example, Sumerians divided a circle into 360 degrees (six 60s). Each degree was divided into 60 minutes, and each minute into 60 seconds. Today, when you look at a compass or a watch, you are using a system that the Sumerians developed thousands of years ago. Like other early civilizations, the Sumerians created a lunar calendar. To keep it accurate, they added a month every few years. READING CHECK: Finding the Main Idea What were the main achievements of the Sumerian civilization? Sumerian Society Early in their history, Sumerians developed a form of community called the city-state. A city-state included a town or city and the surrounding land controlled by it. Major Sumerian city-states such as Ur, Erech, and Kish had thousands of residents. Government and society. The many Sumerian city-states rarely united under a single government. The people believed that much of the land in each city-state belonged to one or more gods. Not surprisingly, priests were important figures. As city-states competed for water and land, however, war leaders became more important. Eventually these leaders ruled as kings. Kings, high priests, and nobles were at the top of Sumerian society, followed by lower priests, merchants, and scholars. Below them were peasant farmers, then slaves who had been kidnapped from other regions or captured in war. 32 CHAPTER 2

Evaluating Sources of Evidence Ancient Discoveries To learn about ancient civilizations such as the Sumerians or Egyptians, we can study both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources include items such as artifacts, diaries, letters, official documents, and eyewitness accounts. Secondary sources are accounts or histories written after the events by people who did not take part in those events. Each type of evidence offers different information. Sometimes a piece of evidence can be both a primary and a secondary source of evidence. Howard Carter (top) and colleagues open Tutankhamen s tomb at Luxor, Egypt, 1922. An Archaeologist s View: Archaeologist Howard Carter found many artifacts in his lifetime. His greatest discovery was the tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen. Carter described his find: With suppressed excitement I carefully cut the cord, removed that precious seal, drew back the bolts, and opened the doors, when a fourth shrine was revealed... There, filling the entire area within stood an immense yellow quartzite sarcophagus [stone coffin].... The lid being suspended in mid-air, we rolled back those covering shrouds, one by one... so gorgeous was the sight that met our eyes: a golden effigy [image] of the young boy king. The hands, crossed over the breast, held the royal emblems the Crook and the Flail. Upon the forehead of this recumbent figure... were two emblems delicately worked in brilliant inlay the Cobra and the Vulture symbols of Upper and Lower Egypt. The Standard of Ur was found in a Sumerian royal cemetery. It is a mosaic from about 2500 B.C., made of shells and colored stones. The panel is double-sided, showing scenes of war on one side and scenes of peace (right) on the other. Skills Reminder To evaluate sources of evidence, you must first identify the source. For example, is it a biography, a diary, a government record, or a work of art? Then review the definitions of primary and secondary sources to determine what type of source it is. The language of a written source, comparison with other sources, and information about the origins or author of the source will also help you determine its usefulness. 3 Skills Practice What kind of source is The Standard of Ur? What does it reveal about Sumerian society? How might Howard Carter s description of the opening of King Tutankhamen s tomb be considered both a primary and a secondary source? Is a primary source always more reliable than a secondary source? Why or why not? THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS 33

Ancient Schools Sumerian boys who showed intelligence and skill were trained to be scribes. They learned to read and write in cuneiform. They also learned basic mathematics. Teachers often punished poor performance with beatings. Schoolboys who were late for class were also punished harshly. One Sumerian boy wrote, In school the monitor in charge said to me: Why are you late? Afraid and with pounding heart, I entered before my teacher and made a respectful [bow]. History does not record the outcome of the boy s tardiness. Why might just some Sumerian boys have been allowed to receive an education? Farming and trade. Most Sumerians farmed. They grew dates, grains, and vegetables, and raised domestic animals. They also grew flax for linen and wove woolen goods. Sumerian farmers grew enough food to allow many people to work as artisans and traders. Before 3000 B.C., Sumerians had begun trading with other peoples of Southwest Asia. Some merchants had agents in faraway places. Others traveled by land or boat to sell Sumerian goods. Education and religion. The Sumerians considered education very important. However, only upper-class boys and no girls attended school. Students learned to write and spell by copying religious books and songs. They also studied drawing and arithmetic. Sheep provided wool and meat for early Sumerians. This sheep s head sculpture was crafted in Sumeria about 5,200 years ago. Like the Egyptians, the Sumerians practiced polytheism. The Sumerian gods were identified with forces of nature and heavenly bodies, such as the sun and the moon. Important gods included An (lord of heaven), Enlil (god of air and storms), and Enki (god of water and wisdom). Sumerian gods and goddesses also guarded individual cities. The city of Nippur, for example, was overseen by the god Enlil, while his son Nanna, god of the moon, guarded the city of Ur. The Sumerians buried food and tools with their dead. Unlike the Egyptians, however, the Sumerians did not imagine the afterlife in detail. Instead, the Sumerians believed in a kind of shadowy lower world. They did not believe in rewards and punishments after death. READING CHECK: Identifying Bias What did the structure of their educational system reveal about the biases in Sumerian society? SECTION 3 REVIEW 1. Define and explain the significance: cuneiform arch ziggurats city-state 34 CHAPTER 2 2. Summarizing Copy the chart below. Use it to show the major characteristics of Sumerian civilization. Sumer keyword: SP3 HP2 Writing Religion Architecture/ Science Government/ Society 3. 4. a. How did geography shape life in the Fertile Crescent? b. What did their focus on education reveal about Sumerian values? c. How was society in Sumer different from society in Egypt? Supporting a Point of View Write a report that persuades readers that Sumerians created a successful civilization. Consider: Sumerian achievements in math and writing trade with other peoples construction of large temples