Print Through studying and dating artifacts and fossils, anthropologists and archaeologists have revealed prehistory. This incomplete record shows how the earliest humans developed and how they adapted to make tools, use fire, and survive Ice Age conditions. Early humans also produced art that relates the human experience. Prehistory How do we define and learn information about prehistory? Historians rely mostly on documents, or written records, to create their pictures of the past. However, no written records exist for the prehistory of humankind. In fact, prehistory means the time before writing was developed. The story of prehistoric humans depends on archaeological and, more recently, biological evidence. Archaeologists and anthropologists use this information to create theories about our early past. Archaeology and Anthropology Archaeology is the study of past societies through analysis of what people left behind. Archaeologists dig up and examine artifacts objects made by humans. Artifacts may be tools, weapons, art, and even buildings made by early humans. Anthropology is the study of human life and culture. Culture includes what people wear, how they organize their society, and what they value. Anthropologists use artifacts and human fossils to create a picture of people s everyday lives. Fossils are rocklike remains of biological organisms such as a leaf imprint or a skeleton. Archaeologists and anthropologists have developed scientific methods to carry out their work. They excavate sites, or carefully dig up land, at places around the globe to uncover fossil remains of early humans, ancient cities, burial grounds, and other objects. The examination and analysis of these remains give archaeologists a better understanding of ancient societies. By examining artifacts such as pottery, tools, and weapons, for example, these scientists learn about the social and military structures of a society. By analyzing bones, skins, and plant seeds, they are able to piece together the diets and activities of early people. One of the most difficult jobs is dating these finds. Dating Artifacts and Fossils Dating human fossils and artifacts helps scientists understand when and where the first humans lived. One method used to determine age is radiocarbon dating. All living things absorb a small amount of radioactive carbon, or C-14, from the atmosphere. After a living thing dies, it slowly loses C-14. By measuring the amount left in an object, a scientist can figure its age. This method is accurate for objects no more than about 50,000 years old. For objects dating back to 200,000 years ago, scientists can make relatively precise measurements using thermoluminescence. This measures the light given off by electrons trapped in the soil surrounding fossils and artifacts. Microscopic and biological analyses of organic remains such as blood, hairs, and plant tissues left on tools and weapons give scientists still more information. Such analyses have shown that blood molecules may survive millions of years. This recent scientific discovery is especially useful in telling us more about humans, their use of tools, and the animals they killed. Ancient deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is providing new information on human evolution. The analysis of plant remains on stone tools yields evidence of the history of farming. All of these techniques give us insight into the lives of early peoples. Explaining What have artifacts and fossils revealed about prehistory? Connections to Today Chocolate at Chaco Canyon Located in what is now New Mexico, Chaco Canyon was the center of an ancestral Puebloan culture that flourished between a.d 850 and 1250. In the 1970s, using traditional digging methods, archaeologists surveyed nearly 1,800 sites and collected more than 100,000 artifacts at Chaco Canyon. Recently, new scientific testing techniques have allowed archaeologists to learn more about how these artifacts were used. In 2008, using chemical analysis, scientists discovered cacao, or chocolate, residue in broken pieces of pottery. This is the earliest evidence of chocolate beverages in the American Southwest. Early Development How did hominids develop?
In recent decades, modern science has produced a clearer picture of how early humans developed. Pieces of the puzzle are still missing, however. When a new skull or skeleton is unearthed, scientists may find that they have to revise their ideas about the lives of prehistoric humans. Hominids to Homo Sapiens What is a hominid? A hominid was a humanlike creature that walked upright. The earliest hominids lived in Africa 4 million years ago. Called Australopithecus (aw stray loh PIH thuh kuhs), or southern ape, by its discoverer Donald Johanson, this hominid flourished in eastern and southern Africa. Louis and Mary Leakey spent most of their lives searching for clues about early human life. Mary Leakey made a dramatic discovery of a skeleton at Olduvai Gorge in East Africa. Her discovery of a hominid in 1959 was the oldest at that time about 1.8 million years old. From 2.5 to 1.6 million years ago, a more advanced hominid developed with a somewhat larger brain. This hominid was named Homo habilis, meaning handy human. Homo habilis may have used stone tools. Another hominid, Homo erectus, upright human, emerged around 1.5 million years ago. Although other hominids walked on two legs, Homo erectus had arms and legs in modern human proportion. Remains in Asia show that Homo erectus was probably the first hominid to leave Africa. Homo Sapiens Sapiens Around 250,000 years ago, Homo sapiens emerged. Homo sapiens, wise human, showed rapid brain growth and mastered fire. The first anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens, meaning wise, wise human, appeared in Africa between 200,000 and 150,000 years ago. They probably spread out of Africa to other parts of the world about 100,000 years ago, replacing populations of earlier hominids in Europe and Asia. This is referred to as the out-of-africa theory. One of the groups of hominids they encountered was known as the Neanderthals. They probably lived between 200,000.. and 30,000.. Neanderthal remains have been found in Europe and Turkey. Neanderthals seem to be the first early people to bury their dead. By 30,000.., Homo sapiens sapiens had replaced the Neanderthals. The Neanderthals died out, possibly as a result of conflicts with Homo sapiens sapiens. The spread of these first modern humans was a slow process. Over many thousands of years, Homo sapiens sapiens spread over the globe as they searched for food and new hunting grounds. In a whole generation, they may have moved only two to three miles. Over tens of thousands of years, this was enough to populate the world. Today, all humans whether they are Europeans, Australian Aborigines (a buh RIHJ nees), or Africans belong to the same subgroup of human beings. Analyzing PRIMARY SOURCES Discovery at Olduvai Gorge [Mary] noticed a scrap of bone that...'seemed to be part of a skull...it had a hominid look...' Mary then saw two large teeth set in the curve of a jaw, and her doubts vanished. 'It was a hominid skull...and there was a lot of it.' She...drove madly back to camp. 'I've got him! I've got him! I've got him!' she cried to Louis...But Louis was groggy with flu and could only manage a confused 'Got what? Are you hurt?' 'Him, the man! Our man,' she replied. 'The one we've been looking for.' from Ancestral Passions: The Leakey Family and the Quest for Humankind's Beginnings DBQ MAKING CONNECTIONS What type of bone did Mary Leakey find, and why was it so significant? Contrasting How do the facts we know about Homo sapiens sapiens and Neanderthals tell different stories about how hominids developed? The Paleolithic Age How did the first humans adapt to survive? One of the distinguishing features of the human species is the ability to make tools. The term Paleolithic Age is used to designate the early period of human history (approximately 2,500,000.. to 10,000..) in which humans used simple stone tools. Paleolithic comes from Greek words meaning old stone, and the Paleolithic Age is sometimes called the Old Stone Age. For hundreds of thousands of years, humans relied on hunting and gathering for their daily food. Paleolithic peoples had a close relationship with their environment. They came to know what animals to hunt and what plants to eat. They gathered wild nuts, berries, fruits, wild grains, and green plants. Around the world, they hunted and ate various animals, including buffalo, horses, bison, and reindeer. In coastal areas, fish and shellfish provided a rich source of food. The Paleolithic Way of Life
Early humans were able to sustain themselves through the use of stone tools. To make such tools, early people used very hard stones such as flint. They used one stone to chip away parts of another, creating an edge. Hand axes of various kinds pointed tools with one or more cutting edges were the most common. Hand axes eventually were set in wooden handles, making them easier to use. By attaching wooden poles to spear points and hardening the tips in fire, humans created spears to kill large animals. Over the years, Paleolithic hunters developed better tools. The invention of the bow and arrow made hunting much easier. Harpoons and fishhooks made of bone increased the catch of fish. Because Paleolithic people were hunters and gatherers, they had to follow animal migrations and vegetation cycles. Paleolithic humans were nomads people who move from place to place to survive. Archaeologists and anthropologists think these nomads probably lived in small groups of 20 or 30. Hunting depended on careful observation of animal behavior patterns and demanded group cooperation for success. The main job of Paleolithic peoples was finding enough to eat. Both men and women were responsible for finding the food needed for survival. Paleolithic parents passed on their practices, skills, and tools to their children to ensure the survival of later generations. Because women bore and raised children, they probably stayed closer to camp. They played an important role in acquiring food by gathering berries, nuts, roots, and grains. Women taught the children which foods were edible. They trapped small animals and kept the camp safe. In the constant search for food, men had to travel far from camp to hunt herds of large animals. Because both men and women were responsible for finding and acquiring the food needed to sustain life, many scientists believe there was equality between them. It is likely that both men and women made decisions that affected the activities of the Paleolithic group. Use of Fire Another important result of the migration of early hominids was the use of fire. As early hominids moved from the tropics into colder regions, they needed to adjust to new climate conditions. Archaeologists have discovered the piled remains of ashes in caves that prove that Paleolithic people used fire systematically as long as 500,000 years ago. At a site in northern China, remnants of hearths, ashes, charcoal, and charred bones have been dated to 400,000 years ago. Fire not only gave warmth but kept wild animals away from the campsite. Armed with spears, hunters used fire to flush out wild pigs for the kill. People gathered around the fire to trade stories and to cook. Cooked food tasted better, lasted longer, and was easier to chew and digest, so it seems likely that nutrition improved. The Ice Ages Having fire to create a source of heat was especially important when Ice Age conditions descended on the Paleolithic world. The most recent Ice Age began about 100,000.. and ended about 8000.. During this time, sheets of thick ice covered large parts of Europe, Asia, and North America. As sea levels went down, people migrated across land bridges that had not existed before. Ice Age conditions posed a serious threat to human life, so the ability to adapt was crucial to human survival. The use of fire, for example, reminds us that early humans sometimes adapted not by changing themselves to better fit their environment but by changing the environment. Paleolithic Art Paleolithic peoples did more than just survive. The cave paintings of large animals found at Lascaux (la SKOH) in southern France and Altamira in northern Spain bear witness to the cultural activity of Paleolithic peoples. The Chauvet cave discovered in southern France in 1994 contained more than 300 paintings of lions, oxen, owls, panthers, and other animals. Most of these are animals that Paleolithic peoples did not hunt, which indicates that they were painted for religious or decorative purposes. Using stone lamps filled with animal fat to light the caves, early artists painted with fingers and twigs and even blew paint through hollow reeds. They mixed mineral ores with animal fat to make red, yellow, and black paint. A variety of realistically painted animals covers the caves. Few humans appear in these paintings, and when they do appear, they are drawn as sticklike figures. This has led some scholars to think the work was done for a magical or religious ritual to bring success in hunting. Describing Describe how the Paleolithic way of life revolved around acquiring food. Reviewing Vocabulary 1. Applying Apply the "out-of-africa theory to explain the connection between early hominids such as Neanderthals and Homo sapiens sapiens. Using Your Notes
2. Gathering Information Use your notes and other ideas from this lesson to describe early humans and their lives during the Paleolithic Age. Answering the Guiding Questions 3. Summarizing How do we define and learn about prehistory? 4. Sequencing How did hominids develop? 5. Identifying Cause and Effect How did the first humans adapt to survive? Writing Activity 6. Informative/Explanatory In one or more paragraphs, describe the work of archaeologists. Use precise nouns to name the subjects of their work, where they perform their work, and the tools they use. Incorporate precise adjectives and adverbs to describe the processes or objects involved.
Print The development of systematic agriculture was a dramatic change, or revolution, during the Neolithic Age. The transition of humans from nomadic hunters to farmers and herders is part of the Neolithic Revolution. This revolution led to the development of traditional economies based on agriculture with limited trade. The Development of Agriculture How did developments in the Neolithic period impact early human history? The end of the last Ice Age, around 8000.., was followed by what is called the Neolithic Revolution that is, the revolution that occurred in the Neolithic Age, the period of human history from around 8000.. to 4000.. The word Neolithic comes from Greek words meaning new stone. The name New Stone Age, however, is somewhat misleading. The real change in the Neolithic Revolution was the shift from the hunting of animals and the gathering of food to the development of agriculture. With agriculture, animals were domesticated rather than hunted. In addition, rather than gathering food, people now grew and harvested food on a regular basis. Today we call this systematic agriculture. Early humans had to move from place to place, following herds and finding plants. During the Neolithic Age, humans began planting crops, providing a regular food source. Domestication of animals, adapting them for human use, added a reliable source of meat, milk, and wool. Animals could also be used to do work. Growing crops and taming food-producing animals caused an agricultural revolution. Because there was enough food, humans had more control over their lives. Sufficient food also meant they could give up their nomadic ways of life and begin to live in settled communities. Some historians believe this revolution was the single most important development in human history. This shift to food producing from hunting and gathering was not as sudden as was once believed. During the Mesolithic Age ( Middle Stone Age, about 10,000.. to 7000..), there was a gradual shift from the old food-gathering and hunting economy to a food-producing one. There was also a gradual taming of animals. Moreover, throughout the Neolithic period, hunting and gathering remained a way of life for many people. Between 8000.. and 5000.., systematic agriculture developed in various parts of the world. In Southwest Asia, people began growing wheat and barley and domesticating pigs, cows, goats, and sheep by 8000.. From there, farming spread into Southeastern Europe. By 4000.., farming was well established in central Europe and the coastal regions of the Mediterranean Sea. By 6000.., the cultivation of wheat and barley had spread into the Nile Valley of Egypt. These crops soon spread up the Nile to other areas of Africa Sudan and Ethiopia. In central Africa, a separate farming system emerged. There, people grew root crops called tubers, such as yams, and tree crops, such as bananas. Wheat and barley farming also moved eastward into India between 7000.. and 5000.. By 5000.., farmers in Southeast Asia were growing rice. From there, rice farming spread into southern China. By 6000.., farming millet and domesticating dogs and pigs seem to have been established in northern China. In the Western Hemisphere, Mesoamericans inhabitants of present-day Mexico and Central America grew beans, squash, and maize. They also domesticated dogs and fowl in this period between 7000.. and 5000.. Neolithic Farming Villages Growing crops on a regular basis gave rise to more permanent settlements called Neolithic farming villages. These villages appeared in Europe, India, Egypt, China, and Mesoamerica. The oldest and biggest villages, however, were located in Southwest Asia. Jericho, near the Dead Sea, was in existence by 8000.. Çatalhüyük (chah tahl hoo YOOK) in modern Turkey was an even larger community, covering 32 acres (12.9 ha). Between 6700.. and 5700.., the city probably had 6,000 inhabitants. Their simple mud brick houses were built so close together that there were few streets. People walked on the roofs and entered their homes through holes in the rooftops. Archaeologists have found a dozen products that were grown outside the city walls, including fruits, nuts, and wheat. Domesticated animals provided meat, milk, and hides. Scenes on the walls of the city s ruins show that the people also hunted. As a result of the steady food supply, Çatalhüyük had a food surplus. Specialization of labor began when not all villagers needed to farm. Some became artisans, or skilled workers, making goods to trade with neighboring people. These goods were bartered, or exchanged, not sold. This was the beginning of a traditional economy based on agriculture and some trade. Besides homes, Çatalhüyük had special buildings that were shrines containing figures of gods and goddesses. Statues of women giving birth or nursing a child have also been found there. Both the shrines and the statues point to the growing role of religion in the lives of Neolithic peoples. Effects of the Neolithic Revolution The Neolithic agricultural revolution caused dramatic changes that affected how people would live to the present day. When people began settling in villages or towns, they saw the need to build walls for protection and storehouses for goods. Storing
surplus products encouraged trade. Trading encouraged more people to learn crafts. This led to the division of labor. As artisans became more skilled, they made more refined tools. Flint blades were used to make sickles and hoes for farming. Eventually, many of the food plants still in use today began to be cultivated. Some plants, such as flax and cotton, were used to make yarn and cloth. The development of agriculture also had a major effect on how men and women related to one another. Men became more active in farming and herding animals, jobs that took them away from the settlement. Instead of the whole family moving as in earlier times, women remained behind. They cared for children, wove cloth for clothes, and did other tasks that kept them in one place. As men took on more and more responsibility for obtaining food and protecting the settlement, they began to play a more dominant role in society. The End of the Neolithic Age Between 4000.. and 3000.., new developments began to affect some Neolithic towns. Even before 4000.., craftspeople discovered that by heating metal-bearing rocks they could turn the metal into liquid. The liquid metal could be poured into molds, or casts, to make tools and weapons. The use of metals marked a new level of control over the environment. Copper was the first metal to be used in making tools. After 4000.., artisans in western Asia discovered that combining copper and tin created bronze a metal harder and more durable than copper. The widespread use of bronze led to the Bronze Age from around 3000.. to 1200.. After about 1000.., the use of iron tools and weapons became common in an era known as the Iron Age. The Neolithic Age set the stage for major changes to come. As people mastered farming, some villages developed more complex and wealthier societies. To protect their wealth, they built armies and city walls. By the beginning of the Bronze Age, large numbers of people were concentrated in the river valleys of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China. These farming villages led to the development of cities. Locating Where and when did systematic agriculture develop? Thinking Like a Historian Interpreting Ancient Records In interpreting a creation myth of the ancient Mesopotamians, historian Georges Roux observes, To their deeply religious minds it offered a non-rational but nevertheless acceptable explanation of the universe. What biases does Roux see expressed in this myth? What biases might Roux himself exhibit? In analyzing and evaluating the records of ancient cultures, historians must attempt to understand the biases they reflect as well as their own biases. Use the Internet or your school library to find an ancient text, such as the Code of Hammurabi or The Epic of Gilgamesh, and analyze and evaluate the cultural biases expressed in it. Development of the River Valley Civilizations How would you define civilization? Whether analyzing societies of the past or the present, anthropologists describe the culture the way of life of a people in a certain time and place. From earliest times, humans lived in small nomadic groups with simple cultures that helped them survive. When humans settled in permanent villages, their cultures became more complex. Gradually, more complex cultures developed into a new form of human society called civilization. A civilization is a complex culture in which large numbers of human beings share a number of common elements. Historians have identified the basic characteristics of civilizations. Six of the most important characteristics are cities, government, religion, social structure, writing, and art. The development of farming determined where people lived. The first civilizations developed in river valleys where physical geographic factors such as plentiful water and fertile land allowed people to carry on the large-scale farming that was needed to feed a large population. As food became abundant, more people would live in cities. New factors of human geography such as government, religion, social structures, and trade networks, soon emerged and began to shape civilization. Economics determined many of the political changes that came with the Neolithic Revolution. Growing numbers of people made food production a central concern and led to more demanding processes, like irrigation. The organization and leadership required for such projects to succeed led to the growth of governments. Governments in early civilizations, usually led by a king, organized armies to protect their populations and made laws to regulate their subjects lives. Important religious developments also characterized the new urban civilizations. All of them developed religions to explain the forces of nature and their roles in the world. They believed that gods and goddesses were important to the community s success. To win their favor, priests supervised rituals aimed at pleasing them. This gave the priests special power and made
them very important people. Rulers also claimed that their power was based on divine approval, and some rulers claimed to be divine. A new social structure based on economic power also arose. Rulers and an upper class of priests, government officials, and warriors dominated society. Below this class was a large group of free people farmers, artisans, and craftspeople. At the bottom was a slave class. The demand of the upper class for luxury items, such as jewelry and pottery, encouraged artisans and craftspeople to create new products. As urban populations exported finished goods to neighboring populations in exchange for raw materials, organized trade began to grow. Because trade brought new civilizations into contact with one another, it often led to the transfer of new technology, such as metals for tools and new farming techniques, from one region to another. Competition for raw materials between neighboring groups also led to the first mass conflicts, or wars. By and large, however, the early river valley civilizations developed independently. Each one was based on developments connected to the agricultural revolution of the Neolithic Age and the cities that this revolution helped produce. Taken together, the civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China constituted nothing less than a revolutionary stage in the growth of human society. Writing was an important feature in the life of these new civilizations. Above all, rulers, priests, merchants, and artisans used writing to keep accurate records. Of course, not all civilizations depended on writing to keep records. The Inca in Peru, for example, relied on well-trained memory experts to keep track of their important matters. Eventually, the earliest civilizations used writing for creative expression as well as for record keeping. This produced the world s first works of literature. Significant artistic activity was another feature of the new civilizations. Architects built temples and pyramids as places for worship or sacrifice or for the burial of kings and other important people. Painters and sculptors portrayed stories of nature. They also depicted the rulers and gods they worshiped. Gathering Information How did large-scale agriculture lead to new patterns of living in river valley civilizations? SKILLS PRACTICE The development of civilization was the result of many changes. Work with a partner to use each vocabulary term in this lesson in a sentence about the effects of the agricultural revolution. Reviewing Vocabulary TEKS: 2B 1. Identifying What are the six basic characteristics of civilization? 2. Explaining Explain the relationship between culture and civilization. Using Your Notes TEKS: 17A 3. Synthesizing Use your notes and information in the lesson to explain how Çatalhüyük exemplifies major developments of the Neolithic Revolution. Answering the Guiding Questions TEKS: 1A, 17A 4. Identifying Cause and Effect How did developments during the Neolithic period impact early human history? TEKS: 1A, 2A, 16B, 17A 5. Identifying Cause and Effect What led to the development of the river valley civilizations?
Writing Activity 6. Narrative In a single, well-developed paragraph, express your thoughts and feelings on what life would have been like as one in a large group of people in a river valley civilization. You may include reflections on place, occupation, social structure, and the role of religion.
Print Mesopotamia was one area in which civilization began. The Tigris and Euphrates River valley supported agriculture and encouraged trade. Mesopotamians developed complex economic, political, and social structures. They invented a written language, built empires, and codified their laws. The Fertile Crescent What role did the physical environment play in the development of Sumerian civilization? Fertile river valleys could support many people in permanent settlements. These farming villages grew into culture hearths, early centers of culture whose ideas and practices spread to surrounding areas. Highly organized societies then evolved in these regions. The ancient Greeks spoke of the valley between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers as Mesopotamia, the land between the rivers. Mesopotamia was at the eastern end of the Fertile Crescent, an arc of land from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. Rich soil and abundant crops allowed the land to sustain an early civilization. Mesopotamia had little rain, but over the years its soil had been enriched by layers of silt material deposited by the two rivers. In late spring, the Tigris and Euphrates often overflowed their banks and deposited their fertile silt. This flooding was unpredictable. It depended on the melting of snows in the upland mountains where the rivers began. People in the valley could not predict the timing and size of the floods. Therefore, they learned to control the flow of the rivers. By using irrigation and drainage ditches, farmers were able to grow crops regularly. An abundance of food allowed many people to live together in cities, and civilization emerged. Mesopotamian civilization refers to the achievements of people from three general areas: Assyria, Akkad, and Sumer. The Sumerians were the creators of the first Mesopotamian civilization. Analyzing How did people in the Fertile Crescent adapt their environment? City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia How did religious beliefs influence the organization of Sumerian society? By 3000.., the Sumerians had established a number of independent cities in southern Mesopotamia, including Eridu, Ur, and Uruk. As the cities expanded, they gained political and economic control over the surrounding countryside. They formed citystates, the basic units of Sumerian civilization. Sumerian cities were surrounded by walls. Uruk, for example, was encircled by a wall six miles (10 km) long, with defense towers located every 30 to 35 feet (9 to 10 m) along the wall. It is estimated that Uruk had a population of around 50,000 people by 2700.., making it one of the largest city-states. City dwellings, built of sun-dried bricks, included both the small houses of peasants and the larger buildings of the city officials, priests, and priestesses. Although Mesopotamia had little stone or wood for building purposes, it did have plenty of mud. Mud bricks, easily shaped by hand, were left to bake in the hot sun until they were hard enough to use for building. People in Mesopotamia were remarkably creative with mud bricks. They invented the arch and the dome, and they built some of the largest brick buildings in the world. Religion and Rulers In Mesopotamia, people looked to religion to answer their questions about life. To them, powerful spiritual beings gods and goddesses permeated all aspects of the universe. The Mesopotamians identified nearly 3,000 gods and goddesses. Their religion was polytheistic because of this belief in many gods. According to the beliefs of the Mesopotamians, humans were supposed to obey and serve the gods. By their nature, humans were inferior to the gods and could never be sure what the gods might do to them or for them. The most prominent building in a Sumerian city was the temple dedicated to the chief god or goddess of the city. This temple was often built atop a massive stepped tower called a ziggurat. The Sumerians believed that gods and goddesses owned the cities. The people devoted much of their wealth to building temples and elaborate houses for the priests and priestesses who served the gods. The temples and related buildings served as the center of the city physically, economically, and even politically. The temples also served as storehouses for surplus food and crafts, which could then be distributed or traded.
The priests and priestesses who supervised the temples held a great deal of power. The Sumerians believed that the gods ruled the cities, making the state a theocracy a government established by divine authority. Even when power passed into the hands of kings, Sumerians believed that these rulers derived their power from the gods and were the agents of the gods. Regardless of their origins, kings held great power. They led armies, supervised the building of public works, and organized workers for the irrigation projects on which farming depended. The army, the government, and the priests and priestesses all aided the kings in their rule. As befitted their power, Sumerian kings and their families lived in large palaces. Economy and Society Although the Sumerian city-states had a traditional economy based chiefly on farming, trade and industry became important as well. The peoples of Mesopotamia made woolen textiles and pottery, but they were particularly well known for their metalwork. Copper, gold, and silver were already being used for jewelry and some tools. The Sumerians discovered that when tin is added to copper, it makes bronze. Bronze has a lower melting point, which makes it easier to cast than copper. Bronze is also a harder metal than copper and corrodes less. The Sumerians bartered, or exchanged, wool, barley, dried fish, wheat, and metal goods for imported copper, tin, and timber. Sumerian traders traveled by land to the eastern Mediterranean in the west and by sea to India in the east. The invention of the wheel, around 3000.., led to wheeled carts, making the transport of goods much easier. Sumerian city-states contained three major social groups: nobles, commoners, and slaves. Nobles included royal and priestly officials and their families. Commoners worked for palace and temple estates and as farmers, merchants, fishers, and craftspeople. Probably 90 percent or more of the people were farmers. Slaves belonged to palace officials, who used them mostly in building projects. Temple officials most often used female slaves to weave cloth and to grind grain. Rich landowners also used slaves to farm their lands. Evaluating Did the Sumerians have an advanced economy relative to their time and place? Explain your answer. The Creativity of the Sumerians Based on their achievements, why do we consider the Sumerians to be innovative? The Sumerians created many inventions that still affect our lives today. Probably their greatest invention was their system of writing. In addition, historians credit them with many technological innovations. Writing and Literature Around 3000.., the Sumerians created a cuneiform ( wedge-shaped ) system of writing. Using a reed stylus (a tool for writing), they made wedge-shaped impressions on clay tablets, which were then baked or dried in the sun. After they dried, these tablets lasted a very long time. Several hundred thousand tablets have been found. They have been a valuable source of information for modern scholars. Mesopotamian peoples used writing primarily for record keeping. Cuneiform texts, however, were also used in schools to train scribes, who served as copyists, teachers, and jurists. Men who began their careers as scribes became the leaders of their cities, temples, and armies. Scribes came to hold the most important positions in Sumerian society. Writing was important because it allowed a society to keep records and to pass along knowledge from person to person and from generation to generation. Writing also made it possible for people to communicate ideas in new ways. This is especially evident in The Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem from Mesopotamia that records the exploits of a legendary king named Gilgamesh. Part man and part god, he befriends a hairy beast named Enkidu. Together, they set off to do great deeds. When Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh feels the pain of death and begins a search for the secret of immortality. His efforts fail, and Gilgamesh remains mortal, showing that everlasting life is only for the gods. The themes of The Epic of Gilgamesh, such as semidivine heroes, deeds of great warriors, and quests for immortality, would later appear in the writings of the classical civilization of Greece. Technology, Science, and Mathematics The Sumerians made several advances in technology, science, and mathematics. They developed the wagon wheel, for example, to help transport people and goods from place to place. The Sumerians were the first to make bronze out of copper and tin, creating finely crafted metalwork and weaponry. The Sumerians also made outstanding achievements in mathematics and in sciences like astronomy. In math, they devised a number system based on 60 and used geometry to measure fields and to erect buildings. In astronomy, the Sumerians charted the heavenly constellations. As the Sumerians encountered other civilizations through trade and conflict, these new ideas were slowly spread throughout Eurasia and North Africa.
Hypothesizing Given what you have learned about the Sumerians, develop a hypothesis on how or why they created a system of writing. Reviewing Vocabulary 1. Paraphrasing In your own words, explain what a ziggurat was and how it was used. Using Your Notes TEKS: 19A, 19B, 26C, 27A 2. Gathering Information Use the notes you took and other information in this lesson to describe the city-states and society of Mesopotamia. Answering the Guiding Questions TEKS: 16B 3. Drawing Conclusions What role did the physical environment play in the development of Sumerian civilization? 4. Analyzing How did religious beliefs influence the organization of Sumerian society? TEKS: 26C, 27A 5. Gathering Information Based on their achievement, why do scholars consider the Sumerians to be innovative? Writing Activity TEKS: 26C 6. Argument In a fully developed paragraph, argue that The Epic of Gilgamesh either reflects aspects of Mesopotamian life or that it is a universal story with a universal theme.