Era 1: Three Worlds Meet Pre-Columbian Societies The Early Americas & North American Cultures in the 1400s
Overview Until the late 15th century, developing civilizations in the Americas were almost completely cut off from those in the Eastern Hemisphere. Instead, agriculture was independently invented and cultural contacts took place within the geographical boundaries of North and South America Essential Question: What were some of the major groups of Native Americans before contact?
Migration to the Americas As recently as 10,000 years ago, during the last Ice Age, thick sheets of ice covered many parts of the world. So much of the earth s water was frozen that sea levels dropped, exposing land along the coasts. During the ice age, a land bridge connected Asia and North America. Historians call this ancient land area Beringia. Scholars agree that hunters from Siberia crossed the land bridge and arrived in North America. This probably took place between 12,000 and 40,000 years ago, and small groups of people crossed at different times.
According to scientists and historians, how and when did the first migration to the Americas occur?
Hunters and Gatherers These first Americans were nomads, people who move from place to place. They followed a hunter-gatherer way of life. The Ice Age ended as the climate grew warmer. This meant that women and girls collected nuts, berries, wild plants, and birds eggs. Men and boys went on extended hunts, following herds of animals. When the animals moved, the hunter-gatherers did too, never staying in one place for long. The glaciers gradually melted away, leaving large lakes and layers of rich soil. Thick forests grew up in eastern North America. The combination of climate change and skillful hunters wiped out most of the huge Ice Age animals. Humans had to find new food supplies, so bands of hunter-gatherers moved southward. By at least 11,000 years ago, people were living in both North and South America.
The Agricultural Revolution Over time, Native Americans began to plant and harvest crops. Farming led them to settle into villages rather than move from place to place. This dramatic change in the way people lived is called the agricultural revolution. Scientists believe that it began in parts of the Americas at least 7,000 years ago. By about 2,000 years ago, ancient American farming was based on three basic crops: corn (maize), beans, and squashes such as pumpkin. To supply meat, men still hunted seasonally, but they also began raising animals. A settled way of life led to other changes in culture. With a more dependable food supply, populations grew. People developed crafts such as pottery making and weaving. Native Americans also developed ways to govern their villages and distribute wealth.
Why does farming equal power? Create a list of 10 of the advantages of farming. Then rank them in order of importance with one being the most important.
Cultures of Central America and South America Central and South America are dotted with archaeological sites from many different cultures. Three major cultures flourished in Mesoamerica, the area from present-day central Mexico into Central America. A fourth important culture arose in South America. The Olmec The Maya and the Toltec The Aztec The Inca
Early Mesoamericans Agricultural villages by 3000 B.C.E. Farmers cultivated beans, peppers, avocados, squash, maize, and tomatoes Domesticated only a limited number of animals - turkeys and dogs for food, no access to large animals Agriculture relied on human labor Development of religious centers along the Gulf of Mexico and cities with sharp class distinctions or specialized labor
Early Mesoamericans - Olmec (1200 B.C.E.) Olmec - rubber people First major Mesoamerican society grew up in the lowlands along the Gulf of Mexico Called the mother culture of Mesoamerica; religion, art, agriculture, and social organization influenced later peoples Engineers and artists; first in Mesoamerica to develop a writing system - agriculture, no excessive irrigation, built elaborate drainage systems to control water, raised fields allowing crops to grow in wetlands, utilized slash and burn method Cities grew as religious and trade centers, exchanging products like salt, cacao, clay, and limestone Olmec disappear by 100 B.C.E.
Early Mesoamericans - Maya (400 B.C.E.) Olmec beliefs and practices carried on by later civilizations (First heir - the Maya) Maya settled east and south of previous Olmec settlements in Mexico and Central America (México, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador) Settling in Guatemala in 3rd century B.C.E. they built a ceremonial center Kaminaljuyu that controlled communities around it Kaminaljuyu fell under the control of city of Teotihuacan and the Maya moved the center of the civilization to the Mesoamerican lowlands Built over 80 large ceremonial centers in the lowlands, all with pyramids, palaces, and temples, and thousands of people (many peasants on the outer edges) Developed a written language, a numerical system similar to arabic, an accurate calendar, an advanced agricultural system, and important trade routes into other areas of the continent
Early Mesoamericans - Maya (400 B.C.E.) Mayan civilization reached its height between about 250 CE and 900. By about 1500 Mayan civilization had declined, but the culture has never disappeared. Some 4 million Mayan-speaking people still live in southern Mexico and Guatemala today.
How did the Mayan culture develop?
Early Mesoamericans - Teotihuacan To the north of the Mayans, a group of people channeled water into fields to produce an abundance of crops Central city was Teotihuacan, a center of religious rituals and government administration, often considered the first real city of the Western Hemisphere, with a population estimated between 125,000-200,000 Pyramid of the Sun and Moon are among the largest masonry structures ever built City collapsed c. 750 CE (possible conflict inferred from defensive walls) Murals indicate violence, burning of temples and elite housing, religious images defaced
Early Mesoamericans - Toltec After the decline of Teotihuacan and the Mayan cities, several regional states rose in Mesoamerica, which fought constantly with one another. Toltec - first to unify Mexico again These people were known for their skills as warriors, artisans, and builders. Toltec influence can be seen in the architecture of late Mayan cities such as Chichen Itza,whose ruins still stand in southern Mexico. Topiltzin, a leader and priest associated with Quetzalcoatl, exiled east, to the land of the rising sun Toltec decline - replaced by the Mexica, or Aztecs
Early Mesoamericans - Mexica (Aztec) Group of invaders from the north rose to power with military force/aggressive expansion, dominating allies by 15th century (1400s) in central valley of Mexico shifted Alliance of tribes Built main city, Tenochtitlan in a place identified by the war god Huitzilopochtli by an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its mouth Built on small islands in Lake Texcoco and connected to mainland by causeways, the city grew to be one of the largest cities on Earth, 300,000/100,000 at its height. Containing a grand marketplace and connected to water by aqueducts Drained swamps, constructed irrigation works and terraces, and used chinampas, or floating gardens (reed beds contained heaped muck from the lake bed) boosting agricultural production
Early Mesoamericans - Mexica (Aztec) Large and impressive public buildings, schools that all male children attended, an organized military, a medical system, and a slave workforce drawn from conquered tribes Established dominance over almost all of Central Mexico and beyond Tribute system of crops, fine woods, feathers, cloth, animals, or slaves enforced by military power Subjugated peoples did maintain independence to a degree, however resented tyrannical rulers Religion based on human sacrifice (gods could be satisfied with living hearts of humans - sacrificed prisoners captured in combat - differs from previous nonfatal techniques) Disease and disunity weakened Meso-American civilizations
Andean Civilizations - Chavin and Moche Chavin (same time as Olmec) dominated Peruvian coastal plain and foothills of Andes (did not develop in a river valley) Geographic challenges of little rainfall, narrow pieces of land, however abundance of fish and other sea life - dependable food supply Declined about 100 B.C.E., but on its foundations the Moche built a society that thrived from 100 to 700 C.E. Extensive irrigation system from rivers - cultivated maize, beans, manioc, and sweet potatoes (lower altitude) and cacao (higher altitude) No written records, only archeological evidence Appreciation for gold, ornaments, jewels, and textiles Decline is not well understood - might have coincided with natural disasters, including an earthquake and flooding, followed by a 30 year drought
Andean Civilizations - Tiwanaku, Wari, and Inca Tiwanaku and Wari occupied the Andes following the Moche The most powerful and well-organized state at the time was the Incas (began c. 1100) in Cuzco (Peru) Original leader - Pachacuti world shaker - sent agents to fan out around the region to explain the benefits of the empire to areas the Incas hoped to control most local leaders allied themselves with the Incas (consolidated power during the 1430s) Began aggressive expansion - led to control of 2500 miles north to south along the Andes range. Expansion was accomplished by a large and well-organized military Empire held together by system of paved roads running north and south along the coast and in the mountains
Andean Civilizations - Inca Corps of official runners carried messages so that the ruler and bureaucrats could keep in touch with their subjects. Roads facilitated the spread of Quechua language and the religious cult of Cuzco Generally, local administrators left in place when a group was conquered, and it was overseen by administrators drawn from the nobility in Cuzco Reciprocity based on the mit a system (donation of labor for public projects) extended to new subjects, who often benefited from incorporation into the Inca Empire with its roads, sophisticated irrigation, and drainage systems
In what ways did Olmec culture influence later cultures in Mesoamerica?
The Earliest Cultures of North America Early Native Americans encountered many different environments in North America forests, deserts, and fertile land. In each region, different kinds of societies developed. Some Native Americans remained hunter-gatherers. Others settled in farming villages. No major civilization controlled large amounts of land in North America A variety of people lived in North America with many different languages and lifestyles Nomadic - hunting bison or deer Arctic hunting of whale, seals, and walruses Gathering of nuts, berries, roots, and grasses to supplement fish or meat In several regions agriculture allowed settlement growth
Peoples of the Southwest The early cultures of the dry Southwest probably developed more than 2,000 years ago. Trade and common ways of living linked these cultures with nearby Mexico. Groups in this region all grew corn, beans, and squash, and women typically made pottery. The Hohokam people in south-central Arizona were one such group. To farm in the desert, they dug irrigation ditches that brought rivers to the fields. Some Hohokam temples sites had temple mounds and ball courts, like those in Mexico, but simpler.
The People of North America - Anasazi Settled in the area where present-day Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah meet (four corners); Anasazi culture soon spread eastward Anasazi used river water to irrigate crops of maize, beans, squash, and sunflowers Hot, dry climate brought drought and famine - but by 700 C.E. they were constructing permanent multi-story stone and adobe buildings (called pueblos or towns by the Spanish) which were connected by roads Most contained ritual enclosures called kivas The Anasazi built some of the pueblos on flat mesas and on steep cliffs; major pueblos (some with hundreds of rooms) were located in Chaco Canyon. Miles of roads linked them with distant Anasazi settlements. Traders carried food and luxuries such as turquoise. Anasazi deserted dwellings during drought/abandoned area by 1300
The People of North America - Moundbuilders Complex large-scale agricultural societies also developed in eastern North America, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River, specifically to the east. These people lived in small farming villages, probably run by the leaders of clans, or groups of people related by blood. As these groups grew and flourished, their villages became more complex. Cultivated maize and beans in an environment with abundant trees and rain Numerous groups constructed enormous earthen mounds (stages for ceremonies, platforms for dwellings, and burial sites) No written language
The People of North America - Moundbuilders The Ohio River valley was the center of two highly organized farming societies, Adena and Hopewell. Both groups are known as Mound Builders because they buried their clan members in large earthen mounds. Adena culture got its start sometime before 500 BC. By about 100 BC, Adena culture had been absorbed by the Hopewell culture. The Adena people had a wide-ranging trade network that brought them goods from distant places. They obtained copper and pearls, for example to adorn the rings and ornaments that were buried with important people. Hopewell people were skillful artists who carved realistic human statues and ceremonial pipes depicting animals. They also worked with copper, shells, mica, and other materials from as far away as the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico By about 400 or 500 CE, the trade network that linked the Hopewell settlements was falling apart. Mound-building traditions, however, continued for hundreds of years.
The People of North America - Mississippian Culture The last major mound-building culture in North America was the Mississippian. Theirs was the most advanced farming society north of Mexico, growing maize and beans, and they introduced a new farming tool - the hoe. All across the Southeast and southern Midwest, the Mississippians built towns. These had impressive ceremonial temple-mounds and broad central plazas. The homes of rulers and nobles stood on pyramids around the central square. The greatest Mississippian cities were Cahokia, near present-day St. Louis, Illinois and Moundville, in Alabama. Largest and most important - Cahokia - 80 mounds of different sizes, abandonment not understood By about 1100, Cahokia was a great population center, perhaps as large as London. Until the late 1800s, its central pyramid was the largest structure in the United States.
How did the landscape and climate of the Southwest affect early people there?
The People of North America By 1450, most in Western Hemisphere lived in small kinship-based groups, speaking a variety of different languages, and practicing a variety of different customs Estimates vary widely on the number of people at the time of European arrival (4-10 million range/zinn 25 million) People in environments not suited to agriculture followed nomadic lifestyle Paiutes and Shoshones of Great Basin (Nevada and Utah) - small bands hunted animals and gathered seeds and berries, division of labor by gender, men doing hunting, women gathering edible plants In more favorable climates, larger groups combined agriculture and fishing with hunting and gathering (Chinooks - Washington and Oregon) People who lived far away from oceans (Arikaras of the Missouri River Valley) cultivated maize, squash, and beans to complement hunting/gathering
The People of North America In settled societies, extended families lived together in villages, and often defined relationships through matrilineal descent (mothers, their married daughters, and their daughters husbands and children all lived close by) Extended families were linked into clans In contrast, the nomadic people of the Great Plains generally traced their lineage through patrilineal descent In both types of societies, power and authority still rested with the men, although more gender equality appears to have existed in the hunting and gathering societies
North American Cultures in the 1400s
Regional Differences AMong Native Americans North America had great differences in climate, geography, and resources. These diverse environments influenced the Native American cultures that formed across the continent. When Europeans reached North America in the 1500s, fewer people lived there than in either Mesoamerica or South America. Historians estimates of the population north of Mexico range from fewer than 1 million to as many as 10 million.
The Southwest The Pueblo peoples of the Southwest inherited many Anasazi traditions. Groups like the Zuni, Hopi, and Acoma lived in many-roomed pueblos. Each pueblo was governed by a council of religious elders. Pueblo groups grew corn, beans, squash, and cotton in the river and creek bottoms in the desert. They also made distinctive pottery and baskets. Two groups of newcomers later arrived in the Southwest. The Apache and the Navajo gradually took up farming. They also became skillful weavers.
The Northwest and California Cool and rainy; tall trees and wild plants grew in moist climate The forests supplied wild games, such as moose, deer, and bear. Abundant salmon swam in the rivers. Hunters went to sea in dugout canoes, using harpoons to hunt whales. Native Americans in the Northwest Coast, including the Kwakiutl (kwah-kee-yoo-tuhl) and Haida (HY-duh), became skilled wood-workers. They built strong, sturdy houses from cedar planks. Later, after acquiring iron tools, they began to carve totem poles, masks, and other wooden crafts. Their rich resources made these peoples aware of wealth and luxuries. They owned luxury goods, such as fine blankets. Families also held feasts called potlatches, where they showed off their wealth by giving valuable gifts to their guests.
The Northwest and California South of the Northwest Coast lay the California region. California was home to the Pomo, Hupa, and Yurok, among others. These people lived in small communities of 50 to 300, speaking more than 100 languages. California had many food sources available year-round, so farming was not necessary. Instead, the people fished and hunted.
The Far North The Native Americans of the far North - also known as the Artic and Subartic were probably the most recent migrants from Asia. The ancestors of modern Inuit probably came by boat about 1,500 years ago. The Aleuts settled much earlier on what are now the Aleutian Islands. Must of the land in the Far North is tundra, treeless plains that are partially frozen for much of the year. Despite the lack of vegetation, animals were plentiful, so the Inuit and Aleuts lived mainly by hunting. On the coast, people hunted seals, seabirds, and whales. Inland, they hunted caribou, beaver, and bear.
The Great Basin and the Plateau Two dryland regions lay to the east of the mountain ranges of the Pacific coast. In the Great Basin, Native Americans such as the Ute (Yoot) and the Shoshones (shuh-shohns) faced severe challenge - little rain, few trees, no large rivers, and little wild game. Native Americans in the Great Basin remained hunter-gatherers. Some lived in caves. They found food by digging roots and gathering acorns, pinon nuts, and other seeds. They also hunted small animals such as rabbits. Populations were small. Much of the land in the Although the Plateau, the high plains region to the north, is fairly arid, it gets more rain and has more forests than the Great Basin. The Plateau is crossed by rivers brimming with salmon and other fish. Groups such as the Nez Perce (Nez Puhrs) lived in villages along these abundant rivers.
The Great Plains Some of the best known Native American groups - the Sioux (Soo), Pawnee, and Cheyenne - lived on the Great Plains west of the Mississippi River. Prairie grasses and wildflowers grew on this flat terrain, and trees lined the wide rivers. The Plains were also home to the least of the great herds of North American animals deer, antelope, elk, and most importantly bison, also known as buffalo. Because the tough roots of the prairie grasses made farming difficult, the culture of early Plain Indians depended on hunting buffalo. Hunting improved after the introduction of the bow and arrow by about 950 CE. Descendants of the Mississippian culture, such as the Caddo and the Wichitas, moved into the southern Plains region. These groups brought new crops and built new villages, especially in the fertile valleys of the Mississippi River and its tributaries.
The Eastern Woodlands In the 1400s, thick forests covered what is now the eastern United States from the Atlantic Ocean west to the Mississippi. Because of these forests, this region is known as the Eastern Woodlands. The Native Americans in this area lived in distinct cultural groups, and their homelands often centered in river basins. Hills and mountain ranges made travel hard. Thus, each group developed its own traditions and tools and often a separate language.
The People of North America - Iroquois The 16th century North American group that came closest to sophisticated organization of the Aztecs and Incas was the Iroquois in the northeastern woodlands (New York), who formed the Iroquois Confederation Iroquois Confederation - The Iroquois included several Native American nations in a loose alliance that was composed of the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas, all bound together by the common Iroquois language and culture The Confederation developed political and organizational skills to sustain a strong military alliance that often dominated its neighbors; however they were often at war; mainly over territory However by European arrival - most natives lived in small, scattered settlements (exceptions - Aztecs and Incas)
The People of North America - Iroquois The Iroquois lived in large villages, which were sometimes surrounded by palisades - walls of upright wood poles. Longhouses provided shelter. These were large wooden buildings with a central aisle and living spaces on either side. The longhouse was so key to their culture that the Iroquois called themselves the people of the longhouse. Other groups in the Eastern Woodlands spoke Algonquian language. These groups included the Chippewa (or Ojibwa), Fox, and Sauk (Sawk). All woodland groups learned to make the best use of local resources. In the oak forests, for example, they made flour from butter acorns. They hunted forest animals for meat and furs and built traps to catch fish in the rivers.
The Southeast In the Southeast, most Native Americans had lived in settled farming villages for hundreds of years. A warm climate, fertile land, and plenty of rain allowed them to grow several crops a year. The Choctaw were one of the many groups in this region. They had lived in thatched-roof log cabins plastered with mud. Some peoples carried on the Mississippian culture into the 1500s and even later. One group carved shells with mysterious designs that may have had religious meaning, which archaeologists have found near temple mounds.
How did the environment make life easier in some regions than in others?
The Peoples of North America - Native American Customs In the last century prior to the arrival of Europeans, Native Americans were experiencing an agricultural revolution, leading to population growth. Tribes were becoming more sedentary, developing new sources for food, clothing, and shelter Generalizations are risky because Native Americans organized their villages and societies in different ways. Some cultures were complex, while others remained simpler. Their homes ranged from skin tents to adobe pueblos to the Iroquois longhouse. Still Native Americans in North American shared a number of ideas and customs. Some grouped by language Algonquin (largest) - dominated Atlantic seaboard from Canada to Virginia Iroquois - Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, and Mohawk, linked to Cherokee and Tuscaroras Muskogean - Chickasaws, Choctaws, Creeks, Seminoles (Southernmost region of eastern seaboard)
The Peoples of North America - Native American Customs Family relations: At the heart of Native America society were families. Most villages and nations were organized into clans on the basis of kinship, or blood relations. Sometimes kinship ties were based on the mother s family, sometimes on the father s. Kinship often determined how property would be inherited. It also determined status and who one could or could not marry. Housing patterns and social arrangements in many societies depended on the position of women. Among the Iroquois, for example, several different clans might live in a village. But all the women in one longhouse came from a single clan. Iroquois society was matrilineal - property was inherited through the mother. In the longhouse, each woman and her family had their own living quarters. A man married into a particular longhouse. Similarly, among the Hopi in the Southwest, a man went to live with his wife s family when he married. He took seeds from his mother s crops with him and raised a crop for his new household. That also helped spread different crop varieties.
The Peoples of North America - Native American Customs Social and Political Structures: Social organization varied greatly from group to group. Some cultures, such as the Pacific Coast and Mississippian, had strict social classes. In other groups, there was more equality. Most clans or nations were headed by chiefs. Villages were usually run by a council of elders with wisdom and experience. Land Use: Native Americans concept of land ownership was very different from that of Europeans. Mainly, they did not believe that land should be bought and sold. Some societies viewed land as a gift of the Great Spirit to humans. It was to be used and shared by the village or group for farming and hunting. This does not mean that there was no sense of territoriality. For example, the Iroquois nations often went to war over hunting grounds. Other groups, however, often shared the use of an area of land.
The Peoples of North America - Native American Customs Division of Labor: Even in the earliest hunter-gatherer groups, certain people did certain kinds of work. This is called division of labor. In ancient times, men and boys hunted animals; women and girls gathered plants, nuts, and berries. With the agricultural revolution, mainly women took over planting and cultivating food crops. During years of gathering wild plants, they had learned which plants were edible and how they grew. This knowledge helped groups invent tools for farming. Societies of North America tended to divide tasks by gender All tribes assigned women role of child care, preparing meals, and gathering certain foods. Algonquins, Iroquois, and Muskogees - women tended fields, while men engaged in hunting, warfare, or clearing land. Iroquois women and children often In the Southwest, the divisions of labor was different. Both women and men were in charge of farming. Women looked after children and cooked. As artisans, women wove cloth and made pottery and baskets. Men were woodcarvers and probably metalworkers.
The Peoples of North America - Native American Customs Religious Beliefs: Despite many differences in culture, Native Americans shared some spiritual and religious ideas. One was a spiritual connection to the natural world. In many belief systems, a tree stood at the center of the earth. For the Iroquois, it was a white pine; for the Sioux, a flowering tree was at the center of the sacred hoop. Animals, particularly bears, were thought to be powerful spirits. Hunters carried out rituals to honor the spirit of an animal they were about to kill. Clans chose an animal as their symbol and spirit guide. Native Americans told many stories. Some explained the creation of the world or the origin of their own people. Some related the deeds of heroes, often twins. Other stories were about deities or spirits, often those associated with crops, rivers, and other aspects of nature. In many cultures, shamans were people believed to have spiritual and healing powers. When Europeans arrived, they called shamans medicine men.
How did gender differences influence the division of labor in Native American societies?
Trading Networks Link Native American Societies From their earliest days in North America, hunting bands sometimes met during their seasonal migration. Probably to show goodwill, different bands exchanged gifts and spear points. Exchanging gifts as a sign of friendship or peace became a tradition. Later, people began to travel deliberately to exchange goods. The main trade items were food, raw materials, and luxury goods. Native Americans usually traded by a barter system, an exchange of goods without using money. In a few places, shells were used as money.
Trading Networks Link Native American Societies Reasons for Trade: Native Americans learned to take advantage of the unique natural resources of their lands. That led to specialization among different peoples. For example, groups with fertile land could produce extra food to trade with areas where food was scarce. Other groups had access to desirable minerals such as flint, copper, or turquoise. People who lived near lakes or oceans collected shells and pearls. Cotton was a useful trade item in the Southwest because cloth and seeds were light and easy to carry. Some groups mastered skills that others did not have. Basket weavers, for example, might trade with pottery makers. Exchanging handicrafts as well as raw materials helped people in different areas to meet their needs.
Trading Networks Link Native American Societies Trading Networks: Hopewell Trade Network: covered what was two-thirds of what is now the United States; exotic minerals and other goods passed from trader to trader until they reached the Hopewell heartland. Could take years to get some items to Ohio Items: Bear s teeth and obsidian from the Rocky Mountains; Copper from the Great Lakes; Mica from the Appalachian Mountains; Shells from the Atlantic seacoast Native American traders used canoes to transport their wares along rivers. They also traveled on foot, carrying goods in backpacks. By the 1400s there were well-work paths through the forests and thousands of miles of trade networks crisscrossed North America. One of the most famous of these trading paths began in Iroquois territory and ran as far south as present-day North Carolina. Trading networks varied in size. In California, many bands traded in a very small area with trade items from very diverse environments.
Trading Networks Link Native American Societies Exchange of Ideas: Along with foodstuffs, raw materials, and more exotic goods, trade networks carried ideas from place to place. The presence of temple mounds and pyramids in Mississippian society, for example, suggests that Mississippians may have borrowed Mesoamerican building practices. In the Southwest, meanwhile, the Pueblo peoples adopted certain religious ideas that came from MExico. They wove these ideas into their own belief systems just as they wove brilliantly colored Mexican macaw feathers into their ritual headdresses.
What role did trade play in Native American societies?