Kimchi Kimchi is the globally recognized symbol of Korea s cuisine culture and its representative food item. The most common type of kimchi is made with Chinese cabbage, but countless varieties are prepared from a diverse array of ingredients, including young radish, cucumber, and green onion. Due to recent studies that have confirmed kimchi to be an exceptional health food, it has attracted growing attention from people the world over. As an integral aspect of everyday life in Korea, an understanding of kimchi can provide unique insight into its people and culture. In the past, kimchi would be prepared in autumn, stored in large crocks, and consumed during the winter. Within earthenware crocks, the kimchi undergoes a fermentation process that produces its unique taste and rich nutrients, including lactobacilli and various vitamins. Eurocreon Koreana Winter 2008
Winter 2008 Koreana
Background and Development of Korean Kimchi Kimchi developed from the practice of preserving vegetables with salt. Over time, a variety of additional seasonings were included, leading to a decrease in salt content and more effective fermentation, aided by lactic acid, which has resulted in the complex character of today s kimchi. Jo Jae-sun Professor Emeritus, Department of Food and Science Technology, Kyung Hee University Koreana Winter 2008
Along with a number of other countries, the cold temperatures of winter in Korea severely limit the growth of fresh vegetable produce, which has led to the practice of salting vegetables in autumn, so that they can be preserved and consumed during winter. However, Korea is unique for the inclusion of a wide variety of ingredients in kimchi, which contributes to its distinctive aroma and flavorful taste. Origin of Kimchi Since prehistoric times, people have used salt as a seasoning and preservative. Kimchi ingredients are allowed to naturally ferment, through the formation of lactic acid, a process that has been used to preserve vegetables since the dawn of agricultural cultivation. From its origin as a food preserved with salt, kimchi gradually evolved into its current form through the inclusion of such ingredients as red chili pepper, salted seafood, meat, and a variety of seasonings. The East Asian countries of Korea, China, and Japan all experience cold weather, starting from autumn and into winter. Accordingly, people in the region have long prepared and consumed pickled foods that can be easily stored. In fact, historical documents indicate that pickled foods had become commonplace in the three countries, from about the fifth century to the seventh century. A fifth-century Chinese text on agriculture contains detailed records of various preserved foods, while an eighth-century Japanese wooden tablet, which specifies a list of foodstuffs, includes references to pickled cucumbers and pickled rice bran. Interestingly, the recipient of this wooden tablet was a resident of Baekje (18 B.C.-A.D. 660). It might be presumed that pickled foods from China crossed the Chinese border into the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo (37 B.C.-A.D. 668), then made their way south into the kingdoms of Baekje and Silla (57 B.C-A.D. 935), before eventually being introduced into Japan. Taking into account the contextual elements, it can be inferred that the history of kimchi began during the Three Kingdoms period (1st century B.C.-A.D. 7th century), at the latest. In a section on Eastern Peoples of the Chinese historical text, Records of the Three Kingdoms, it mentions: The people of Goguryeo possess superior technology for brewing liquor, making soy and other sauces, and preparing pickled seafood. Goguryeo plundered the local products of fish and salt from Okjeo [Woju]. From these accounts, you can see that the people of Goguryeo were already aware of the need for salt, an essential ingredient of kimchi, and familiar with the fermentation process. Moreover, the Korean historical text Historical Record of the Three Kingdoms (Samguksagi, 1145) notes that: Unified Silla Kingdom people enjoyed liquor, soy and other sauces, and pickled seafood at wedding ceremonies in 683, thus confirming the widespread use of foods preserved with salt. Among the relevant relics still around today, there is a stone jar on the grounds of Beopjusa Temple, installed in 720 during the Unified Silla period, which is believed to have been a container for storing kimchi. Nowadays, kimchi is closely associated with its bright redness, which results from the liberal inclusion of chili pepper. But until quite recently, kimchi was prepared as a basic fermented vegetable dish, with only scant seasonings, like this white Chinese cabbage kimchi. Winter 2008 Koreana
Historical Accounts The first mention of kimchi can be found in historical records from the Goryeo period (918-1392). Guidelines on etiquette included a list of kimchi types that should be part of the food offerings prepared for ancestral rituals: dropwort kimchi, bamboo-shoot kimchi, turnip kimchi, and garlic-chive kimchi. The Goryeo literary figure Yi Gyu-bo (1168-1241) included a poem in his anthology, Collected Works of Chancellor Yi of Korea (Donggugisanggukjip), which described the making of pickled turnips and the preparation and eating of a certain bland kimchi. The Goryeo period medical journal, Emergency Remedies of Korean Medicine (Hyangyakgugeupbang), identifies cucumber, wax gourd, garlic chives, curled mallow, lettuce, green onion, and radish as the main ingredients of kimchi. In addition, a number of poems, from the 13th century to the 15th century, include references to pickled foods and kimchi, indicating that kimchi had attained considerable popularity during the Goryeo period. However, it should be noted that the kimchi of this period generally involved only limited ingredients, such as a vegetable or two, which were preserved with salt. There was a kind of literary renaissance during the Joseon period (1392-1910), that led to a proliferation of texts being published across the country, which included publications on agricultural and culinary subjects, such as a detailed overview of kimchi-related developments. The early Joseon literary figure Seo Geo-jeong (1420-1488) was the first to mention the seasonings used in kimchi in one of his poems: We plant turnips, radishes, lettuce, and dropwort in the back field, along with ginger, garlic, and green onions, and we make kimchi with five seasonings. In particular, garlic has been a basic food item of Koreans for so long that it even appears in the myth of Dangun, who is said to have descended from heaven to found the kingdom of Gojoseon (Old Joseon) in 2333 B.C. The term dimchae was first cited in a 1525 medical text, in reference to a type of pickled vegetable ( chimchae ), in which the vegetables were immersed in liquid, that later became kimchi. This etymology is a reflection of kimchi s uniqueness among pickled foods, in which the vegetables, along with the liquid produced by the fermentation, are both maintained and consumed. A historical text from the late 16th century mentions 11 types of kimchi. Still, aside from explanations of kimchi being made with radish, cabbage, wax gourd, fern bracken, and soy beans, as well as a watery variety made by soaking radish in brine, there is no specific mention of the use of red pepper at that time. Today s Kimchi The making of kimchi today calls for the basic ingredients of Chinese cabbage, red pepper, and salted seafood. Chinese cabbage is the primary component of kimchi, which is seasoned with red pepper and salted seafood. Nonetheless, it was not until the 17th century that Chinese cabbage, red pepper, and salted seafood became the primary ingredients of kimchi. It was during the 200-year period, from the late 17th century to the late 19th century, that a wide variety of vegetables and seasonings, such as red pepper, green onion, garlic, 1 2 10 Koreana Winter 2008
ginger, and salted seafood, were used to make kimchi. Chinese cabbage has been cited in medical texts as a vegetable with medicinal benefits. It appears to have been widely cultivated from the mid-16th century, and was likely used for the making of kimchi. Red pepper is thought to have been introduced from Japan around the time of the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592-1598). A record from 1613 states: Red pepper has been brought over from Japan and it is poisonous. However, it not until sometime later that red pepper became an ingredient of kimchi, because of a lack of awareness of its usefulness as a seasoning. The key factors that led to the inclusion of red pepper in kimchi were related to the development of agricultural technology and occurrence of natural phenomena, such as flood and drought, which resulted in serious food shortages. Based on a 1765 account, which noted, these days, red pepper is being cultivated in large amounts, and appearing in the market in large amounts as well, it seems that red pepper was widely used in the 18th century. The first reference to the use of cabbage and red pepper in kimchi is found in the Supplement to Forestry Administration (Jeungbosallimgyeongje, 1766), which included the recipes for making some 20 varieties of kimchi, including cabbage kimchi. The Women s Quarters Series (Gyuhapchongseo, 1809) also explained how to season kimchi with salted seafood. Various types of preserved seafood had been around since the Three Kingdoms period, but it was only in the mid-1700s that it began to be used to make kimchi. It was also found that the addition of preserved seafood allowed the amount of salt to be reduced. By the early 18th century, the making of kimchi included Chinese cabbage, red pepper, garlic, and salted seafood, resulting in a form similar to the popular varieties of today. Yet, there are countless variations of kimchi, based on the ingredients used and the region of its preparation, along with the continuous adoption of innovative twists. As for kimchi, which remains deeply rooted in Korea s everyday lifestyle, it might well lead the way of the efforts to globalize Korean food. It is believed that kimchi was derived from two Chinese characters, chimchae ( 沈菜 ), which together meant pickled vegetables. The pronunciation of the two Chinese characters underwent a series of change, from chimchae to dimchae, and eventually the current kimchi. 1 Collected Works of Chancellor Yi of Korea, an anthology of essays by the Goryeo period writer Yi Gyu-bo (1168-1241), includes information on the preparation of white radish kimchi, which is thought to be the earliest written mention of kimchi. 2 The first cookbook written in the Korean Hangeul alphabet, by Lady Jang (1598-1680), Understanding the Flavor of Food contains recipes for several varieties of kimchi, including types for everyday meals and those for special occasions that called for high-quality ingredients. 3 Earthenware crocks, for the fermentation and storage of kimchi, have developed regional characteristics. In the south, kimchi crocks were short and rounded, while narrower forms would be found in northern areas, so that larger volumes could be buried in the ground. 3 Winter 2008 Koreana 11