CHAPTER 6 EARLY SOCIETIES IN THE AMERICAS AND OCEANIA The cultures of the Americas and Oceania developed in relative isolation to the other early complex societies. Nevertheless, they too developed an agricultural base sufficient to support growing populations, specialized labor, political institutions, diverse societies, and long-distance trading networks. Less is known ofthese cultures than those in other parts ofthe world primarily because either writing systems did not develop or written documents perished or were destroyed. The fragments ofwriting and archaeological findings indicate that these societies were complex and developed rich cultural traditions. The early societies in the Americas Built elaborate ceremonial centers that reflected both a complex religion and a powerful political authority Left a rich artistic legacy that included pottery, sculpture, metalwork, and painting Developed sophisticated knowledge ofastronomy and mathematics The early societies ofoceania Saw the gradual dissemination of agricultural technology spread by Austronesian seafarers who traded and settled throughout the Pacific Fonned a well-integrated society known as Lapita that stretched from New Guinea to Tonga OUTLINE I. Early societies of Mesoamerica A. The Olmecs I. Migration to Mesoamerica a) Large wave ofhumans traveled from Siberia to Alaska around 13,000 RC.E. b) By 9500 RC.E., humans reached the southernmost part of South America c) As hunting became difficult, agriculture began (7500 RCB.) 2. Early agriculture: beans, squashes, chilis; later, maize became the staple (5000 RC.E.) a) Agricultural villages appeared after 3000 RC.E. b) No large domesticated animals, no wheeled vehicles 3. Ceremonial centers by the end of the second millennium RC.E. 4. Olmecs, the "rubber people," lived near the Gulf ofmexico (1200 RCB. ) 63
a) Elaborate complexes built b) The colossal human heads-possibly likenesses ofrulers c) Rulers' power shown. in construction ofhuge pyramids d) Trade in jade and obsidian e) Decline ofolmecs: systematically destroyed ceremonial centers by 400 RCE. 5. Int1uence ofolmecs: maize, ceremonial centers, calendar, human sacrifice, ball game B. Heirs ofthe Olmecs: the Maya 1. The Maya lived in the highlands of Guatemala a) Besides maize, they cultivated cotton and cacao b) Tikal was the most important Maya political center, 300 to 900 CE. c) Maya warfare: warriors had prestige; captives were slaves or victims d) Chich6n Itza, power by the ninth century; loose empire in Yucatan e) Maya decline began in 800 C.E.; many Mayans deserted their cities C. Maya society and religion 1. Maya society was hierarchical a) Kings, priests, and hereditary nobility at the top b) Merchants were from the ruling class; they served also as ambassadors c) Professional architects and artisans were important d) Peasants and slaves were majority of population 2. The Maya calendar had both solar and ritual years interwoven 3. Maya writing was ideographic and syllabic; only four books survive 4. Religious thought a) Popol Vuh, a Maya creation myth, taught that gods created humans out of maize and water b) Gods maintained agricultural cycles in exchange for honors and sacrifices c) Bloodletting rituals honored gods for rains 5. The Maya ball game: sporting, gambling, and religious significance D. Heirs of the Olmecs: Teotihuacan 1. The city ofteotihuacan in the highlands ofmexico a) Colossal pyramids of sun and moon b) High point between 400 and 600 C.E.; two hundred thousand inhabitants c) Paintings and murals ret1ect the importance of priests 2. Teotihuacan society a) Rulers and priests dominated society 64
b) Two-thirds of the city inhabitants worked in fields during daytime c) Artisans were famous for their obsidian tools and orange pottery d) Professional merchants traded extensively throughout Mesoamerica e) No sign ofmilitary organization or conquest 3. Cultural traditions: ball game, calendar, writing, sacrifices 4. Decline of Teotihuacan from about 650 C.E.; was sacked and destroyed mid-eighth century II. Early societies of South America A. Early Andean society and the Chavin cult 1. Early migration to Peru and Bolivia region a) By 12,000 B.C.. hunting and gathering peoples reached South America b) By 8000 B.c.. they began to experiment with agriculture c) Complex societies appeared in central Andean region after 1000 B.C.E. d) Andean societies were located in modem-day Peru and Bolivia 2. Early agriculture in South America a) Main crops: beans, peanuts, sweet potatoes, cotton b) Fishing supplemented agricultural harvests c) By 1800 B.C.E. the people produced pottery, built temples and pyramids 3. The Chavin cult, from about 900 to 300 B.C.E. a) Complexity of Andean society increases during Chavin b) Devised techniques ofproducing cotton textiles and fishing nets c) Discovered gold, silver, and copper metallurgy d) Cities began to appear shortly after Chavin cult e) Early Andeans did not make use ofwriting B. Early Andean states: Mochica (300-700 C.E.) in northern Peru 1. Irrigation, trade, military, no writing 2. Artistic legacy: painting on pottery, ceramics III. Early societies of Oceania A. Early societies in Australia and New Guinea 1. Human migrants arrived in Australia and New Guinea at least sixty thousand years ago a) By the mid-centuries of the first millennium C.E., human communities in all habitable islands ofthe Pacific Ocean b) About ten thousand years ago, rising seas separated Australia and New Guinea 65
c) Australia: hunting and gathering until the nineteenth and twentieth centuries CE. d) New Guinea: turned to agriculture about 3000 RCE. 2. Austronesian peoples from southeast Asia were seafarers to New Guinea, 3000 RC.E. 3. Early agriculture in New Guinea: root crops and herding animals B. The peopling ofthe Pacific islands 1. Austronesian migration to Polynesia a) Outrigger canoes enabled them to sail safely b) Agriculture and domesticated animals 2. Austronesian migrations to Micronesia and Madagascar 3. Lapita society from New Guinea to Tonga (1500--500 B.C.E.) a) Agricultural villages b) Pottery with geometric designs c) Networks oftrade/communication: pottery, obsidian, shells, tools traded d) After 500 B.C.E. trade network declined; cultures developed independently e) Hierarchical chiefdoms; tension led to migration f) Divine or semidivine chiefs: led public rituals, oversaw irrigation IDENTIFICATION: TERMS/CONCEPTS State in your own words what each ofthe following terms means and why it is significant to a study of world history. (Terms with an asterisk are defined in the glossary.) Land bridges Olmecs* Maya* Tikal* Chichen Itza Popol Vuh* Ball game Teotihuacan* Palenque Temple ofthe Giant Jaguar 66
Chavin cult* Mochica* Austronesians Lapita peoples Voyage ofru STUDY QUESTIONS 1. How did humans come to settle in all parts ofthe Americas and in Oceania? 2. What traditions begun by the Olmecs were later adopted by other Mesoamerican societies? 3. How did the religion ofthe Maya reflect and reinforce their economy and governmental structure? 4. What role did human sacrifice play in early American societies? 5. For what were the people of the Teotihuacan culture most noted? 6. How did the geography of South America influence the development ofthe early complex societies there? 7. Compare and contrast the societies that existed under the Chavin cult and the Mochica state. 8. Where and how did agriculture spread in Oceania? 9. Describe the origins and development and the decline ofthe Lapita society. 10. In general, how did political structures evolve on the islands of Oceania? INQUIRY QUESTIONS 1. Consider the meaning ofbloodletting and human sacrifice to the Mesoamericans. How do these practices make sense in the context oftheir belief systems? How did their societies evolve to support these beliefs and these practices? What sorts of practices evolved out of different belief systems in other parts of the world? 2. How did the geography ofthe Americas and Oceania contribute to their unique development? What are the similarities in their patterns of development in spite ofthe geographical differences? 3. The paucity ofwritten documentation for these cultures makes for large gaps in our understanding of them. What sorts of information can we obtain about cultures such as these without written texts, and what will we never know? 67
MATCHING Match these tenus with the statements that follow. A. Maya E. Teotihuacan B. Chavfn F. Austronesians C. Olmec G. Tikal D. Mochica H. Lapita 1. Religious cult ofthe central Andes; followers built large temple complexes and created elaborate stone carvings. 2. Large city ofmesoamerica that contained huge pyramids ofthe sun and the moon. 3. Well-integrated society of the south Pacific islands. 4. Mesoamerican culture responsible for sophisticated calendar and writings on the creation ofhumans. 5. City that flourished in Mesoamerica from 300 to 900 C.B.; it contained the Temple ofthe Jaguar. 6. Early Andean state noted for its paintings on pottery. ~ 7. People who used navigational and agricultural skills to establish settlements on Pacific islands. 8. Earliest known society with ceremonial centers in Mesoamerica. B. SEQUENCING Place the following clusters ofevents in chronological order. Consider carefully how one event leads to another and try to determine the internal logic ofeach sequence. A. Teotihuacan is home to almost two hundred thousand inhabitants. Colossal heads carved out ofbasalt rock are created. Chicben Itza organizes an empire, bringing stability to the Yucatan. People ofmesoamerica begin experimenting with the cultivation ofmaize. Humans migrate to Australia. Austronesian mariners arrive inhawafi. Cultivation ofroot crops and animal herding begins on New Guinea. Lapita peoples build states based on chiefdoms that eventually develop a divine or semidivine status.
MAP EXERCISE Onthe outline map below, trace the movement ofpeoples from Asia to the Americas a.n.d to Oceania. Use different colored pencils to represent the different groups ofpeople who migrated. WORLD ('hin <lor Grlnten ProjoetIalI,...,. 1000 _ 300D 1 I
In fifty words or less, explain the relationship between each of the following pairs. How does one lead to or foster the other? Be specific in your response. (May be done individually or in small groups.) Maya and cacao Maya calendar and Popol Vuh Bloodletting and ball game Outrigger canoes and agriculture New Guinea and Madagascar FILMS Sentinels ofsilence: The Ruins ofancient Mexico (1971). VHS. Academy award-winning documentary narrated by Orson WeUes. Maya: Lords ofthe Jungle, by John Angier. Executive producer for the Odyssey series, Michael Ambrosino. Maya - The Blood ofkings (1995). Narrated by Sam Waterston, TimelLife, Lost Civilizations. Inca - Secrets ofthe Ancestors (1995). Narrated by Sam Waterston, Time/Life, Lost Civilizations. Fall ofthe Aztec and Maya Empires (1999). Questar Media. National Geographic's Lost Kingdoms ofthe Maya (1993). Nova - The Lost King ofthe Maya (2001). Searchingfor Lost Worlds: Machu Picchu: Secrets ofthe Incan Empire (1999). Ancient Inca (1998). Schlessinger Media. Secrets ofthe Lost Inca Mummies (2002). Warner Home Video. 73