Grade 7 History Mr. Norton

Land-bridge Theory Thousands of years ago, glaciers, or thick sheets of ice, stretched across Canada. The glaciers locked up water from the oceans, causing sea levels to fall and uncovering the land beneath the sea. This situation exposed a land bridge joining Siberia and Alaska. Bands of hunters might have crossed this land bridge from Asia to the Americas. Coastal-route Theory People might have reached North America by crossing icy arctic waters by boat. Other Theories People might have reached the Americas from Europe, Africa, or South Pacific islands.

Some farming communities in Central America grew surplus, or extra, food enough to support large populations. With enough food available to feed large populations, the first cities emerged. These cities marked the rise of the first civilization in the Americas. The earliest known civilization in the Americas was that of the Olmecs. They lived in the lowlands along the Gulf of Mexico, about 3,500 years ago. The Olmecs left behind huge, carved stone heads and smaller carved figures. They built stone temples and developed a calendar.

Early Mayas lived in the rain forests of present-day Guatemala and Mexico. About 3,000 years ago, they began clearing the rain forests and draining swamps to create farmland. Mayan cities sprang up from Central America to southern Mexico. Trade flowed along a network of roads. Priests were at the top of Mayan society. Nobles, who served as warriors and government officials, also had high status. Laborers and farmers were near the bottom. Below them were slaves, most of whom were prisoners of war or criminals. Mayan priests made advances in astronomy and mathematics. They learned to predict eclipses and created an accurate, 365-day calendar. They developed a system of numbers that included the concept of zero. Around A.D. 900, the Mayas abandoned their cities. Historians are not sure why.

A new civilization arose north of the abandoned Maya cities the Aztecs. The early Aztecs were nomads. In the 1300s, Aztecs settled around Lake Texcoco in central Mexico. The Aztecs built their capital, Tenochtitlán, in the middle of the lake. They constructed a system of causeways, or raised roads made of packed earth, to link the city to the mainland. In some places, they dug canals. In other places, they planted crops on the floating gardens they had created. Aztec priests developed complex calendars. The Aztecs paid special attention to the sun god, to whom they sacrificed thousands of captives each year. By 1500, the Aztecs ruled a huge empire from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean. Heavy taxes and the sacrifice of prisoners of war sparked revolts.

The Incas built one of the largest empires in the Americas. By 1500, their empire stretched for almost 2,500 miles along the west coast of South America. The center of the empire was Cuzco, a city high in the Andes. It had massive palaces and temples made of stone and decorated with gold. At the center was the palace of the emperor. The Incan empire was very well organized. The Incas maintained 10,000 miles of roads. Runners carried royal orders across the empire. They carried with them a device known as a quipu a cord or string with knots that stood for quantities, such as bags of grain. The Incas were skilled engineers. They built massive stone temples and forts. In order to farm the steep mountains, they created terraces, or wide steps of land.

Culture Location Characteristics Hohokams present-day southern Arizona About 2,000 years ago, they dug networks of irrigation ditches so they could farm the desert. They grew corn, squash, and beans. Anasazis Mound Builders Four Corners region where Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona meet From the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi Valley and from Wisconsin to Florida 1. They irrigated the desert. 2. They traded along the network of roads they built. 3. They built large houses of stone and adobe, or sun-dried brick. In the 1500s, the Spanish called these houses pueblos, meaning village. 1. Beginning about 3,000 years ago, various groups built large earth mounds. At first, the mounds were used for burials. Later, the mounds were used for religious ceremonies. 2. The Hopewells and the Mississippians were the best-known groups of Mound Builders. The Mississippians built a large city at Cahokia in present-day Illinois. culture the entire way of life of a people, including homes, clothing, economy, arts, and government.

The Olmec civilization arose in South America when a) Olmec warriors drove the Mayas into the rain forest. b) Olmec hunters arrived from Asia and settled down to gather nuts and wild berries. c) Olmec farmers were able to grow enough food to support large populations. d) the Aztecs shared the secret of digging canals and farming swamps. The best definition of the word culture is a) the entire way of life of a people. b) the ability to build large cities. c) the building of massive palaces, temples, and other structures. d) learning, such as engineering and astronomy.

Grade 7 History Mr. Norton

How did people live in different culture areas of North America? How did climate and resources affect Native American cultures? What beliefs did different native American groups share? What was life like among the Iroquois?

A culture area is a region in which people share a similar way of life. Each culture area was home to many different tribes. A tribe is a community of people who share common customs, language, and rituals. Members of a tribe saw themselves as a distinct people who shared a common origin. In different culture areas, people met their basic needs for food, clothing, and shelter in different ways: hunting and gathering fishing farming trading

Region Some of the People Characteristics Far North Inuits 1. Frozen seas and icy, treeless plains. 2. Lived in pit houses, houses dug into the ground and covered with wood and skins. 3. Clothing made out of furs and sealskins. Plateau Utes, Shoshones 1. Cold and dry environment with hardy plants and animals. 2. Collected pine nuts and dug for roots. 3. Hunted mountain sheep and rabbits. 4. Had few possessions. Northwest Coast 1. Mild temperatures and abundant food; forests. 2. Fish from the sea. 3. Houses and canoes of planks. 4. Permanent villages. 5. Families held potlatches, or ceremonial dinners where the family gave gifts to the guests. Southeast Natchez 1. Warm, moist climate. 2. Hunted, fished, and farmed the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. 3. 13-month calendar, each month named after a food or animal.

Respect for the earth and the forces of nature Prayers and ceremonies were designed to keep a balance between people and forces of nature. Native Americans believed that people must adapt their ways to the natural world. The world was full of powerful unseen forces and spirits, which Native Americans honored. Special ceremonies In farming areas, tribes held special ceremonies to ensure good rainfall. At Pueblo festivals, some dancers were dressed to represent kachinas spirits with the power to bring good harvests. In the Southeast, when the corn ripened in the fall, the Green Corn Ceremony marked the end of the old year and the beginning of the new one.

Location The Iroquois lived in the Eastern Woodlands, in present-day New York State. Dwellings They called themselves The People of the Long House, for their sturdy dwellings, which were about 150 long and 20 feet wide. Several families lived in a long house. Role of women Women owned all the household property and were in charge of planting and harvesting. When a woman married, her husband moved in with her family. Political organization A clan was a group of two or more related families. Women chose the clan leaders The Five Nations The Iroquois included five nations Mohawk, Seneca, Onondaga, Oneida, and Cayuga. League of the Iroquois Around 1570, the five nations formed an alliance to end the fighting between the nations. The alliance became known as the League of the Iroquois. A council of 50 tribal leaders, called sachems, met once a year to make decisions for the League.

A culture area is a region in which a) people developed many, very different ways to meet their basic needs. b) most of the people share a similar way of life. c) there are many different cultures. d) everyone speaks the same language. Although there were many different groups of Native Americans, they shared some basic ideas, including a) the practice of worshipping their rulers. b) the belief that people must marry outside of their social class. c) the practice of putting on a ceremonial dinner to give away some of their wealth. d) a deep respect for the earth and the forces of nature.

Grade 7 History Mr. Norton

Why did trade flourish in the Muslim world? What trading states rose in Africa and what was life like for people in many African cultures? How did China s overseas trade expand in the early 1400s?

In Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, long-distance trade and travel grew dramatically in the 1400s, marking the beginning of the first global age. Arabia is at the center of trade routes linking the Mediterranean world with Asia and Africa. Arab merchants played a role in the growing trade. The religion of Islam emerged in Arabia in the early 600s. Muslims, or Islam s followers, believe that their holy book, the Quran, contains the word of God as revealed to Muhammad. Muslim traders carried their religion to people along their trade routes. Muslim sailors developed expert knowledge of the Indian Ocean. They sailed to the many ports of Africa and India. Muslim traders also traveled overland across Central Asia. The Central Asian routes linking China and the Middle East are known as the Silk Road. Because the Silk Road was dangerous, traders formed caravans groups of people who traveled together for safety.

City-states of East Africa (Kilwa, Sofala) Gold was carried to African coastal cities and across the Indian Ocean to India and China Wealth from trade helped East African rulers build strong city-states large towns that have their own governments and control the surrounding countryside. Many rulers became Muslims. A new language, Swahili, blended Arab words and African languages. Trading kingdoms of West Africa (Mali, Songhai) Several trading kingdoms grew up in a region of grasslands called the savanna. Many rulers adopted Islam.

Where people lived Most people of Africa lived in small villages away from the powerful trading states. How they earned a living Most people made a living by herding, fishing, or farming. Family life Family relationships were important. Many people lived within an extended family several generations living in one household. Importance of kinship Ties of kinship, or sharing a common ancestor, linked families. People related by kinship owed loyalty to one another. Religious beliefs Beliefs varied widely. However, common beliefs included the idea that links among family members lasted even after a person died. Africans honored the spirits of their ancestors as well as the forces of nature.

China was ruled by an emperor. An emperor who came to power in 1402 was eager for trade. He ordered a fleet of more than 300 ships to be built. The fleet was commanded by Admiral Zheng He. Zheng He made seven voyages. His fleet traded in Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and East Africa. After Zheng He s death in 1435, China s overseas voyages abruptly ended. No one is sure why.

Which statement best describes Islam in the 1400s? a) Islamic traders would trade only with other Muslim merchants. b) Islam s followers believed in many gods. c) Islam was spread by the Chinese admiral, Zheng He. d) Islam began in Arabia and spread across a vast area including North Africa. Which statement best describes Chinese trade in the 1400s? a) Eventually a Chinese fleet crossed the Pacific and rounded the tip of South America. b) In the early 1400s, a large Chinese fleet traded in many foreign ports; then, after thirty years, it suddenly stopped. c) In the 1400s, the Chinese built a new fleet patterned after the many Chinese fleets before it. d) The Chinese established several trading cities on the west coast of Africa.

Grade 7 History Mr. Norton

What Jewish and Christian traditions influenced European civilization? How did ancient Greek and Roman traditions affect later Europeans? How did the Crusades and the growth of trade change Europe in the Middle Ages? How was the Renaissance a time of expanding horizons?

Judaism Jews believe in one God and feel a duty to obey God s rules. Jews credit Moses with bringing God s laws to them, including the Ten Commandments, which is a set of religious and moral rules. Every Jew must obey religious and moral rules. Not even a ruler is above God s laws. Christianity Christians are followers of Jesus, who believed in the Ten Commandments and other Jewish traditions. He preached that there is one God. Jesus preached about God s goodness and mercy. Jesus taught that anyone could achieve salvation, or everlasting life. Everyone was equal in the eyes of God. Christians organized a strong church. The church sent out missionaries, people who spread Christian teachings

Greek traditions Around 400 B.C., Greece entered a golden age. Greek artists created fine marble statues and elegant temples. Poets and playwrights created works that are still read today. Greek thinkers, such as Socrates and Aristotle, valued human reason. They believed that by using reason, individuals could understand the natural world. Greek thinkers made important contributions to science and mathematics, including the study of geometry and medicine. The people of ancient Athens created direct democracy, a form of government in which ordinary citizens have the power to govern. Athenian democracy was limited to free men whose parents had been born in Athens.

Roman traditions In 509 B.C., the Romans overthrew their king and set up a republic, a system of government in which citizens choose representatives to govern them. A Senate and an assembly made the laws. The republic came to an end. Julius Caesar named himself dictator for life. His nephew Octavian declared himself emperor in 27 B.C. As emperor, he was called Caesar Augustus. The empire lasted for almost 500 years. In that time, Rome spread its language, Latin, across a wide area. Romans also spread their ideas about law. Everyone was equal before the law. Accused people were considered innocent until proven guilty. There were rules about the use of evidence in court.

The period from about A.D. 500 to 1400 is known as the Middle Ages. Feudalism Kings and queens divided their lands among warrior nobles. In return, the nobles owed the monarch loyalty and military service. This system is called feudalism. The king and the most powerful lords were at the top of feudal society. Next came lesser nobles. Last were the peasants who farmed the lord s lands and could not leave without his permission. Feudal life Life revolved around the manor, which included the lord s castle and the lands around it. Each manor was self-sufficient. The most powerful force was the Roman Catholic Church. The Church owned large amounts of land. The Church was also the source of education.

The Crusades Between 1100 and 1300, European life began to change more rapidly. Christians fought a series of wars to control the Holy Land the Crusades. In the end, they were unsuccessful. Growth of trade The Crusades sparked trade. Returning Crusaders demanded more of the Asian foods, spices, silks, and woven rugs that they had seen on the Crusades. Italian merchants increased their trade with the Muslim world. New navigation tools Trade brought new knowledge increased sailing skills, the magnetic compass, and the astrolabe, an instrument that helped sailors determine their latitude.

The Printing Press The printing press helped to spread Renaissance learning. Now that books no longer had to be copied by hand, they were less expensive. More people could own books. People began to read, and learning spread more quickly. The rise of strong kings and queens During the Renaissance, trade brought prosperity. Rulers began to increase their power. They saw that profits could be made through trade. Increased trade and travel made Europeans want to learn about the world. They began to look to the learning of ancient Greece and Rome. As they studied ancient learning, they began to make their own discoveries in art, medicine, astronomy, and chemistry. This great burst of learning was called the Renaissance, a French word meaning rebirth. The Renaissance lasted from the late 1300s until the 1600s.

New trade routes Muslim and Italian merchants controlled the trade routes across the Mediterranean Sea. So, Europe s rulers began to look for new routes. Portuguese voyages Portugal was a leader in the search for new routes. Portugal s Prince Henry set up a school of navigation and shipbuilding. The Portuguese designed a new type of ship, the caravel. Caravels could sail into the wind. Slowly, Portuguese explorers ventured south along the coast of Africa. In 1488, Bartholomeu Dias reached the southern tip of Africa. In 1497, Vasco da Gama rounded the tip of Africa and sailed across the Indian Ocean to India.

Over the centuries, the ideas of ancient Greece helped shape European traditions. Early Greek thinkers said that a) it was a sacred duty to obey God s rules. b) God had given Moses the Ten Commandments. c) anyone, rich or poor, could achieve salvation. d) by using reason, individuals could understand the natural world. The Renaissance was a time when a) Christians fought a series of wars to control the Holy Land. b) increased trade and travel made Europeans thirst to learn more about the world. c) the Roman empire declined and invaders overran many regions. d) Europeans turned their backs on the rest of the world.

Grade 7 History Mr. Norton