PLANT GUM EXUDATES OF THE WORLD

PLANT GUM EXUDATES OF THE WORLD Sources, Distribution, Properties, and Applications Amos Nussinovitch (Ltfi) CRC Press \ V J Taylor & Francis Croup Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Croup, an informa business

Contents Preface Acknowledgments The Author xix xxiii xxv 1 Role and Sources of Exudate Gums 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Definitions 3 1.3 Gum Yields 8 1.4 Agricultural Issues 9 1.5 Physical Properties of Gums 12 1.5.1 Color 12 1.5.2 Size and shape 13 1.5.3 Taste and smell 14 1.5.4 Hardness and density 15 1.5.5 Polarization 16 1.5.6 Solubility 16 1.5.7 Viscosity and mouthfeel 17 1.6 Chemical Properties 19 1.7 Commercial Assessments of Gums 19 1.8 Industrial and Other Uses 19 References 20 2 Physiological Aspects of Polysaccharide Formation in Plants 23 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Stress Factors, Ethylene and Gummosis 23 2.3 Borers and Gum Formation 30 2.4 Gum Ducts 31 2.5 Gummosis in Fruit Trees 32 2.6 Induced Inoculation and Gum Yield 34 References 35 3 Major Plant Exudates of the World 39 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Gum Arabic and Other Acacia Gums 39 VII

viii Contents 3.2.1 Acacia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 39 3.2.1.1 Taxon: Acacia Senegal (L.) Willd 39 3.2.1.2 Taxon: Acacia seyalde\i\e 42 3.2.1.3 Taxon: Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth. subsp. calophylla Brenan 43 3.2.1.4 Taxon: Acacia bakeri Maiden 43 3.2.1.5 Taxon: Acacia benthamii Meisn 43 3.2.1.6 Taxon: Acacia binervata DC 43 3.2.1.7 Taxon: Acacia catechu (L. f.) Willd 43 3.2.1.8 Taxon: Acacia dealbata Link 45 3.2.1.9 Taxon: Acacia decurrens Willd 45 3.2.1.10 Taxon: Acacia drepanolobium Harms ex Y. Sjostedt 46 3.2.1.11 Taxon: Acacia elata A. Cunn. ex Benth 46 3.2.1.12 Taxon: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd 46 3.2.1.13 Taxon: Acacia ferruginea DC 47 3.2.1.14 Taxon: Acacia harpophyllaf. Muell. ex Benth 47 3.2.1.15 Taxon: Acacia jacquemontii Benth 47 3.2.1.16 Taxon: Acacia karroo Hayne 47 3.2.1.17 Taxon: Acacia kirkii Oliv 47 3.2.1.18 Taxon: Acacia laeta R. Br. ex Benth 48 3.2.1.19 Taxon: Acacia leiophylla Benth 48 3.2.1.20 Taxon: Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd 48 3.2.1.21 Taxon: Acacia maidenii F. Muell 49 3.2.1.22 Taxon: Acacia mellifera (Vahl) Benth 49 3.2.1.23 Taxon: Acacia modesta Wall 49 3.2A.24 Taxon: Acacia oerfota (Forssk.) Schweinf. 49 3.2.1.25 Taxon: Acacia oswaldii F. Muell 50 3.2.1.26 Taxon: Acaciapendula A. Cunn. ex G. Don 50 3.2.1.27 Taxon: Acaciapenninervis Sieber ex DC 50 3.2.1.28 Taxon: Acaciapycnantha Benth 51 3.2.1.29 Taxon: Acacia retinodes Schltdl 51 3.2.1.30 Taxon: Acacia salicina Lindl 51 3.2.1.31 Taxon: Acacia sieberiana DC 51 3.2.1.32 Taxon: Acacia stuhlmanii Taub 51 3.2.1.33 Taxon: Acacia vernicifiua A. Cunn 52 3.2.1.34 Taxon: Acacia xanthophloea Benth 52 3.2.2 Faidherbia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 52 3.2.2.1 Taxon: Faidherbia albida (Delile) A. Chev. 52 3.3 Gum Tragacanth and Similar Gums 52 3.3.1 Astragalus FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) 52 3.3.1.1 Taxon: Astragalus gummifer Labill 52 3.3.1.2 Taxon: Astragalus brachycalyx Fisch 55 3.3.1.3 Taxon: Astragalus heratensis Bunge 56 3.3.1.4 Taxon: Astragalus kurdicus Boiss 56 3.3.1.5 Taxon: Astragalus microcephalus Willd 57 3.3.1.6 Taxon: Astragalus verus Olivier 57

Contents ix 3.3.2 Sterculia MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: STERCULIOIDEAE) 57 3.3.2.1 Taxon: Sterculia urens Roxb 57 3.3.2.2 Taxon: Sterculia foetida L 60 3.3.2.3 Taxon: Sterculia guttata Roxb 61 3.3.2.4 Taxon: Sterculia quadrifida R. Br 62 3.3.2.5 Taxon: Sterculia scaphigera Wall 62 3.3.2.6 Taxon: Sterculia setigera Delile 63 3.3.2.7 Taxon: Sterculia tragacantha Lindl 64 3.3.2.8 Taxon: Sterculia villosa Roxb 64 3.3.3 Brachychiton MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: STERCULIOIDEAE) 64 33.3A Taxon: Brachychiton acerifolius (A. Cunn. ex G. Don) Macarthur 64 3.3-4 Firmiana MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: STERCULIOIDEAE) 65 3.3.4.1 Taxon: Firmiana simplex (L.) W. Wight 65 3.3.5 Hildegardia MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: STERCULIOIDEAE) 65 3.3.5.1 Taxon: Hildegardia barteri (Mast.) Kosterm 65 3.3-6 Cochlospermum BIXACEAE 65 3.3.6.1 Taxon: Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston 65 3.4 Important Indian or Asiatic Gums and Their Botanical Sources 66 3.4.1 Aegle RUTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: AURANTIOIDEAE) 66 3.4.1.1 Taxon: Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa 66 3.4.2 Albizia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 68 3.4.2.1 Taxon: Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth 68 3.4.2.2 Taxon: Albizia odoratissima (L. f.) Benth 69 3.4.2.3 Taxon: Albiziaprocera (Roxb.) Benth 69 3.4.2.4 Taxon: Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr 71 3.4.2.5 Taxon: Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin 72 3.4.3 Aleurites EUPHORBIACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CROTONOIDEAE) 73 3.4.3.1 Taxon: Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd 73 3.4.4 Anogeissus COMBRETACEAE 76 3.4.4.1 Taxon: Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall, ex Guill. & Perr 76 3.4.5 Bauhinia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 79 3.4.5.1 Taxon: Bauhiniapurpurea L 79 3.4.5.2 Taxon: Bauhinia roxburghiana Voigt 80 3.4.5.3 Taxon: Bauhinia variegata L 81 3.4.6 Buchanania ANACARDIACEAE 82 3.4.6.1 Taxon: Buchanania lanzan Spreng 82 3.4.6.2 Taxon: Buchanania latifolia Roxb 82 3.4.7 Toona MELIACEAE 83 3.4.7A Taxon: Toona ciliata M. Roem 83 3.4.8 Chloroxylon RUTACEAE 84 3.4.8.1 Taxon: Chloroxylon swietenia DC 84 3.4.9 Delonix FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 84 3.4.9.1 Taxon: Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf. 84 3.4.10 Elaeodendron CELASTRACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CELASTROIDEAE) 86 3.4.10.1 Taxon: Elaeodendron glaucum (Rottb.) Pers 86

Contents 3.4.11 Limonia RUTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: AURANTIOIDEAE) 89 3.4.11.1 Taxon: Limonia acidissima L 89 3-4.12 Mangifera ANACARDIACEAE 90 3.4.12.1 Taxon: Mangifera indica L 90 3.4.13 Azadirachta MELIACEAE 93 3-4.13-1 Taxon: Azadirachta indica A. Juss 93 3.4.14 Prosopis FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 95 3.4.14.1 Taxon: Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce 95 3.4.14.2 Taxon: Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC 95 3.4.15 Sesbania FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) 98 3.4.15.1 Taxon: Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers 98 3.4.16 Spondias ANACARDIACEAE 98 3.4.16.1 Taxon: Spondias dulcis Sol. ex Parkinson 98 3.4.16.2 Taxon: Spondiaspinnata (J. Koenig ex L. f.) Kurz 100 3.4.17 Terminalia COMBRETACEAE 101 3.4.17A Taxon: Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb 101 3.5 Gums of The New World 104 3.5.1 Anacardium ANACARDIACEAE 104 3.5.1.1 Taxon: Anacardium humile A. St.-Hil 104 3.5.1.2 Taxon: Anacardium nanumk. St.-Hil 104 3.5.1.3 Taxon: Anacardium occidentakh 104 3.5.2 Anadenanthera FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 105 3.5.2.1 Taxon: Anadenanthera colubrina (Veil.) Brenan var. cebil (Griseb.) Altschul 105 3.5.2.2 Taxon: Anadenanthera colubrina (Veil.) Brenan var. colubrina 106 3.5.3 Caesalpinia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 106 3.5.3.1 Taxon: Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd 106 3.5.4 Parkinsonia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 107 3.5.4.1 Taxon: Parkinsoniapraecox (Ruiz & Pav.) J. A. Hawkins subsp. praecox 107 3.5.5 Parapiptadenia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 108 3.5.5.1 Taxon: Parapiptadenia rigida (Benth.) Brenan 108 3-5-6 Puya BROMELIACEAE 108 3.5.6.1 Taxon: Puya chilensis Molina 108 3.5-7 Jheobroma MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: BYTTNERIOIDEAE) 110 3.5.7-1 Taxon: Theobroma cacao L 110 3.5.8 Laguncularia COMBRETACEAE 110 3.5.8.1 Taxon: Laguncularia racemosa (L.) C. F. Gaertn 110 3.5.9 Pithecellobium FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Ill 3.5.9.1 Taxon: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth Ill 3.5.10 Samanea FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Ill 3.5.10.1 Taxon: Samaneasaman (Jacq.) Merr Ill 3-5.11 Enterolobium FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 113 3.5-11.1 Taxon: Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb 113 3.5.12 Chloroleucon FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 115 3.5-12.1 Taxon: Chloroleucon mangense (Jacq.) Britton & Rose 115

Contents xi 3.5.13 Leucaena FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 115 3.5.13.1 Taxon: Leucaena collinsii Britton & Rose 115 3.5.14 Lysiloma FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 116 3.5.14.1 Taxon: Lysiloma acapulcense (Kunth) Benth 116 3.5.15 Lnga FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 116 3.5.15.1 Taxon: lnga stipularis DC 116 3.5.16 Rhizophora RHIZOPHORACEAE 117 3.5.16.1 Taxon: Rhizophora mangle!, 117 3-5.17 Melicoccus SAPINDACEAE (SUBFAMILY: SAPINDOIDEAE) 117 3.5.17.1 Taxon: Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq 117 3.5.18 Ceiba MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: BOMBACOIDEAE) 118 3.5.18.1 Taxon: Ceiba speciosa (A. St.-Hil.) Ravenna 118 3-5.19 Thespesia MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MALVOIDEAE) 118 3.5.19.1 Taxon: Thespesiapopulnea (L.) Sol. ex Correa 118 3.5.20 Cylindropuntia CACTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: OPUNTIOIDEAE) 120 3.5.20.1 Taxon: Cylindropuntia fulgida (Engelm.) F. M. Knuth 120 3.5.21 Manilkara SAPOTACEAE 121 3-5.21.1 Taxon: Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen 121 3.5.22 Larix PINACEAE 122 3.5.22.1 Taxon: Larix occidentals Nutt 122 3.6 Miscellaneous Asiatic, African, and Australian Gums 123 3.6.1 Actinidia ACTINIDIACEAE 123 3.6.1.1 Taxon: Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) C. F. Liang &A. R. Ferguson 123 3.6.2 Araucaria ARAUCARIACEAE 123 3.6.2.1 Taxon: Araucaria heterophylla (Salisb.) Franco 123 3.6.3 Balanites ZYGOPHYLLACEAE (SUBFAMILY: TRIBULOIDEAE) 125 3.6.3.1 Taxon: Balanites aegyptiacus (L.) Delile 125 3.6.4 Brabejum PROTEACEAE 125 3.6.4.1 Taxon: Brabejum stellatifolium L 125 3.6.5 Butea FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) 126 3.6.5.1 Taxon: Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub 126 3.6.6 Cercis FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 127 3.6.6.1 Taxon: Cercis siliquastrum L 127 3.6.7 Cissus VITACEAE 127 3.6.7.1 Taxon: Cissus populnea Guill. & Perr 127 3.6.8 Commiphora BURSERACEAE 129 3.6.8.1 Taxon: Commiphora mollis (Oliv) Engl 129 3.6.9 Diospyros EBENACEAE 130 3.6.9.1 Taxon: Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A. DC 130 3.6.10 Dicorynia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 130 3-6.10.1 Taxon: Dicoryniaparaensis Benth 130 3.6.11 Entandrophragma MELIACEAE 130 3.6.11.1 Taxon: Entandrophragma angolense (Welw.) C. DC 130 3.6.12 Fagarta RUTACEAE 131 3.6.12.1 Taxon: Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepern. &Timler 131

xii Contents 3.6.13 Ferula APIACEAE 131 3.6.13.1 Taxon: Ferula foetida (Bunge) Regel 131 3.6.14 Grevillea PROTEACEAE 132 3.6.14.1 Taxon: Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. ex R. Br 132 3.6.15 Lophira OCHNACEAE 133 3.6.15.1 Taxon: Lophira alata Banks ex C. F. Gaertn 133 3-6.16 Madhuca SAPOTACEAE 134 3.6.16.1 Taxon: Madhuca longifolia (L.) J. F. Macbr 134 3.6.17 Millettia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) 134 3.6.17.1 Taxon: Millettiapinnata (L.) Panigrahi 134 3.6.18 Mystroxylon CELASTRACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CELASTROIDEAE) 135 3.6.18.1 Taxon: Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes 135 3.6.19 Parkia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 136 3.6.19.1 Taxon: Parkia bicolor A. Chev. 136 3.6.20 Pereskia CACTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: PERESKIOIDEAE) 136 3.6.20.1 Taxon: Pereskia guamacho F.A.C. Weber 136 3-6.21 Phormium HEMEROCALLIDACEAE 136 3.6.21.1 Taxon: Phormium tenax]. R. Forst. & G. Forst 136 3.6.22 Piptadeniastrum FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 137 3.6.22.1 Taxon: Piptadeniastrum africanum (Hook, f.) Brenan 137 3.6.23 Pittosporum PITTOSPORACEAE 137 3.6.23.1 Taxon: Pittosporumphillyreoides DC 137 3.6.24 Polyscias ARALIACEAE (SUBFAMILY: ARALIOIDEAE) 137 3.6.24.1 Taxon: Polyscias sambucifolia (Sieber ex DC.) Harms 137 3.6.24.2 Taxon: Prunus avium (L.) L 138 3.6.25 Prunus ROSACEAE (SUBFAMILY: SPIRAEOIDEAE) 140 3.6.25-1 Taxon: Prunus armeniaca L 140 3.6.25.2 Taxon: Prunus domestica L. subsp. domestica 141 3.6.25.3 Taxon: Prunuspersica (L.) Batsch var. persica 143 3.6.25.4 Taxon: Prunus spinosa L 143 3.6.26 Pterocarpus FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) 144 3.6.26.1 Taxon: Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb 144 3.6.27 Sapindus SAPINDACEAE (SUBFAMILY: SAPINDOIDEAE) 145 3.6.27.1 Taxon: Sapindus trifoliatus L 145 3.6.28 Stangeria ZAMIACEAE 145 3.6.28.1 Taxon: Stangeria eriopus (Kunze) Baill 145 3.6.29 Symphonia CLUSIACEAE 146 3.6.29.1 Taxon: Symphonia globuliferah. f. 146 3.6.30 Talisia SAPINDACEAE (SUBFAMILY: SAPINDOIDEAE) 147 3.6.30.1 Taxon: Talisia oliviformis (Kunth) Radlk 147 3.6.30.2 Taxon: Watsonia versfeldii). W. Mathews & L. Bolus 147 3.6.31 Welwitschia WELWITSCHIACEAE 148 3.6.31.1 Taxon: Welwitschia mirabilis Hook. f. 148 3.6.32 Ziziphus RHAMNACEAE 148 3.6.32.1 Taxon: Ziziphus jujuba Mill 148 References 149

Contents xiii Minor Plant Exudates of the World 163 4.1 Introduction 163 4.2 Adansonia MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: BOMBACOIDEAE) 163 4.2.1 Taxon: Adansonia digitata L 163 4.3 Adenanthera FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 168 4.3.1 Taxon: Adenantherapavonina L 168 4.4 Afzelia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 170 4.4.1 Taxon: Afzelia africana Sm. ex Pers 170 4.5 Albizia FABACEAE 172 4.6 Anogeissus COMBRETACEAE 173 4.6.1 Taxon: Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr 173 4.7 Atalaya SAPINDACEAE (SUBFAMILY: SAPINDOIDEAE) 174 4.7.1 Taxon: Atalaya hemiglauca (F. Muell.) F. Muell. ex Benth 174 4.8 Balsamocitrus RUTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: AURANTIOIDEAE) 174 4.8.1 Taxon: Balsamocitrus dawei Stapf 174 4.9 Bauhinia FABACEAE 175 4.9.1 Taxon: Bauhinia carronii F. Muell 175 4.9.2 Taxon: Bauhinia thonningii Schumach. & Thonn 175 4.9.3 Taxon: Tylosema fassoglense (Kotschy ex Schweinf.) Torre & Hillc 176 4.10 Julbernardia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 176 4.10.1 Taxon: Julbernardia globiflora (Benth.) Troupin 176 4.11 Bombax MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: BOMBACOIDEAE) 177 4.11.1 Taxon: Bombax ceiba L 177 4.11.2 Taxon: Bombax insigne^/zw 180 4.12 Borassus ARECACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CORYPHOIDEAE) 180 4.12.1 Taxon: BorassusflabelliferL 180 4.13 Bosistoa RUTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: TODDALIOIDEAE) 181 4.13.1 Taxon: Bosistoapentacocca (F. Muell.) Bail 181 4.14 Brachystegia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 181 4.14.1 Taxon: Brachystegia spiciformis Benth 181 4.15 Burkea FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 183 4.15-1 Taxon: Burkea africana Hook 183 4.16 Capparis CAPPARACEAE 184 4.16.1 Taxon: Capparis nobilis (Endl.) F. Muell. ex Benth 184 4.17 Careya LECYTHIDACEAE (SUBFAMILY: PLANCHONIOIDEAE) 185 4.17A Taxon: Careya arborea Roxb 185 4.18 Cassia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 186 4.18.1 Taxon: Cassia fistula L 186 4.18.2 Taxon: Cassia sieberiana DC 187 4.19 Cedrela MELIACEAE 189 4.19.1 Taxon: Cedrela odoratal 189 4.20 Ceiba MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: BOMBACOIDEAE) 190 4.20.1 Taxon: Ceibapentandra (L.) Gaertn 190 4.21 Ceratopetalum CUNONIACEAE 190 4.21.1 Taxon: Ceratopetalum apetalum D. Don 190 4.21.2 Taxon: Ceratopetalum gummiferum Sm 191

xiv Contents 4.22 Chukrasia MELIACEAE 191 4.22.1 Taxon: Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss 191 4.23 Citrus RUTACEAE 193 4.24 Cocos ARECACEAE (SUBFAMILY: ARECOIDEAE) 195 4.24.1 Taxon: Cocos nucifera L 195 4.25 Cola STERCULIACEAE 197 4.25.1 Taxon: Cola cordifolia (Cav.) R. Br 197 4.26 Combretum COMBRETACEAE 198 4.27 Cordia BORAGINACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CORDIOIDEAE) 200 4.27.1 Taxon: Cordia myxa L 200 4.28 Cordyla FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) 201 4.28.1 Taxon: Cordyla africana Lour 201 4.29 Corypha ARECACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CORYPHOIDEAE) 202 4.29.1 Taxon: Corypha utan Lam 202 4.30 Crataeva CAPPARACEAE 202 4.30.1 Taxon: Crataeva adansonii DC 202 4.31 Cussonia ARALIACEAE 204 4.31 A Taxon: Cussonia arborea Hochst. ex A. Rich 204 4.32 Cycas CYCADACEAE 204 4.32.1 Taxon: Cycas lane-poolei C. A. Gardner 204 4.32.2 Taxon: Cycas circinalis L 204 4.33 Dichrostachys FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 207 4.33A Taxon: Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn 207 4.34 Echinocarpus ELAEOCARPACEAE 208 4.34A Taxon: Echinocarpus australis Benth. (now synonym of sloanea australis F. Muell., see section 4.6.2.2) 208 4.35 Elaeocarpus ELAEOCARPACEAE 208 4.35-1 Taxon: Elaeocarpusgrandis F. Muell 208 4.35.2 Taxon: Elaeocarpus obovatus G. Don 208 4.35.3 Taxon: Elaeocarpus reticulatus Sm 208 4.36 Encephalartos ZAMIACEAE 208 4.36.1 Taxon: Encephalartos hildebrandtii A. Braun & C. D. Bouche 208 4.37 Entada FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) 209 4.37A Taxon: Entada africana Guill. & Perr 209 4.38 Erythrophleum FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 209 4.38.1 Taxon: Erythrophleum africanum (Welw. ex Benth.) Harms 209 4.39 Flindersia RUTACEAE 210 4.39.1 Taxon: Flindersia maculosa (Lindl.) F. Muell 210 4.39.2 Taxon: Flindersia australis R. Br 211 4.40 Garuga BURSERACEAE 211 4.40.1 Taxon: Garugapinnata Roxb 211 4.41 Geijera RUTACEAE 212 4.41.1 Taxon: Geijera paniculata (F. Muell.) Druce 212 4.42 Geodorum ORCHIDACEAE 212 4.42.1 Taxon: Geodorum nutans (C. Presl) Ames 212 4.43 Hakea PROTEACEAE 213 4.43-1 Taxon: Hakea gibbosa (Sm.) Cav. 213

Contents xv 4.44 Khaya MELIACEAE 214 4.44.1 Taxon: Khaya grandifoliola C. DC 214 4.44.2 Taxon: Khaya madagascariensis Jum. & H. Perrier 214 4.44.3 Taxon: Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss 214 4.45 Lagerstroemia LYTHRACEAE 217 4.45.1 Taxon: Lagerstroemiaparviflora Roxb 217 4.46 Lannea ANACARDIACEAE 219 4.46.1 Taxon: Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr 219 4.47 Macrozamia ZAMIACEAE 221 4.47A Taxon: Macrozamia spiralis (Salisb.) Miq 221 4.48 Melia MELIACEAE 221 4.48.1 Taxon: Melia azedarach L 221 4.49 Melicope RUTACEAE 224 4.49.1 Taxon: Bouchardatia neurococca (F. Muell.) 224 4.50 Moringa MORINGACEAE 225 4.50.1 Taxon: Moringa oleifera Lam 225 4.51 Owenia MELIACEAE 228 4.51.1 Taxon: Owenia venosa F. Muell 228 4.52 Panax (Tieghemopanax) ARALIACEAE 228 4.52.1 Taxon: Polyscias elegans (C. Moore & F. Muell.) Harms 228 4.52.2 Taxon: Neopanax colensoi (Hook, f.) Allan 228 4.53 Saltern PENAEACEAE 228 4.53.1 Taxon: Saltera sarcocolla (L.) Bullock 228 4.54 Pentaceras RUTACEAE 229 4.54.1 Taxon: Pentaceras australis (F. Muell.) Benth 229 4.55 Prunus ROSACEAE 229 4.55.1 Taxon: Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb 229 4.56 Pseudocedrela MELIACEAE 230 4.56.1 Taxon: Pseudocedrela kotschyi (Schweinf.) Harms 230 4.57 Saccopetalum ANNONACEAE 231 4.57.1 Taxon: Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) J. Sinclaiv 231 4.58 Sarcostemma ASCLEPIADACEAE 231 4.58.1 Taxon: Sarcostemma brevistigma Wight & Arn 231 4.59 Schefflera ARALIACEAE 231 4.59.1 Taxon: Schefflera volkensii Harms 231 4.60 Sclerocarya ANACARDIACEAE 232 4.60.1 Taxon: Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst 232 4.61 Semecarpus ANACARDIACEAE 233 4.61.1 Taxon: Semecarpus anacardium L. f. 233 4.62 Sloanea ELAEOCARPACEAE 234 4.62.1 Taxon: Sloanea woollsii F. Muell 234 4.62.2 Taxon: Sloanea australis F. Muell 234 4.63 Soymida MELIACEAE 235 4.63.1 Taxon: Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A. Juss 235 4.64 Tamarindus FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) 236 4.64.1 Taxon: Tamarindus indica L 236

xvi Contents 4.65 Heritiera MALVACEAE 238 4.65.1 Taxon: Heritiera trifoliolata (F. Muell.) Kosterm 238 4.66 Terminalia COMBRETACEAE 238 4.67 Thevetia APOCYNACEAE 245 4.67.1 Taxon: Thevetiaperuviana (Pers.) K. Schum 245 4.68 Virgilia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) 246 4.68.1 Taxon: Virgilia oroboides (P. J. Bergius) T. M. Salter 246 References 247 Food Applications of Plant Exudates 257 5.1 Introduction 257 5.2 Food Uses of Gum Exudates 258 5.2.1 Confectionery 258 5.2.2 Salad dressings and sauces 261 5.2.3 Frozen products 262 5.2.3.1 Frozen dough 263 5.2.3.2 Frozen sugar solutions 263 5.2.3.3 Frozen dairy products, ice pops and sherbets 264 5.2.4 Spray-drying 264 5.2.4.1 Spray-drying of juices 264 5.2.4.2 Miscellaneous spray-dried products 266 5.2.4.3 Encapsulation via spray-drying 267 5.2.5 Drum-drying 267 5.2.6 Wine 268 5.2.7 Adhesives 269 5.2.8 Bakery products 269 5.2.9 Flavorfixativesand emulsifiers 269 5.2.10 Beverages 270 5.2.11 Meat products 270 5.2.12 Miscellaneous 270 5.2.13 Microencapsulation 271 5.2.13.1 Oleoresins 271 5.2.13.2 Linoleic acid microencapsulation 274 5.2.13.3 Procyanidins 275 5.2.14 Coacervation 276 5.2.15 Deep-fat frying 276 5.2.16 Emulsions 277 5.2.17 Foam 279 5.3 Gum Exudates in Animal Food 280 5.3.1 Introduction 280 5.3.2 Insects 280 5.3.3 Mammals and primates 281 5.4 Health-Related Aspects 284 5.4.1 Safety 284 5.4.2 Nutrition 285 References 286

Contents xvii 6 Gum Exudates in Water-Based Adhesives 293 6.1 Introduction 293 6.2 Gums as Adhesives 294 6.3 Industrial Uses of Exudate Glues 294 6.3.1 General 294 6.3.2 Paper 294 6.3.3 Wood and furniture 294 6.4 Biological Applications: A General Approach 296 6.4.1 Ostomy devices 296 6.4.2 Denture fixatives 297 6.4.3 Bioelectrodes 298 6.4.4 Exudate patches for transdermal drug delivery 298 6.5 Hydrocolloid Adhesion Tests 299 6.6 Exudates as Wet Glues 302 6.7 Adhesion Mechanisms of Hydrogels 306 References 308 7 Medical, Cosmetic and Biotechnological Uses of Gum Exudates 311 7.1 Introduction 311 7.2 Pharmacological Applications 311 7.2.1 Demulcent and emollient qualities 311 7.2.2 Suspending and emulsifying agents 312 7.2.3 Laxatives 314 7.2.4 Antiseptic preparations and ophthalmic infections 314 7.2.5 Tablets and pills 334 7.2.6 Hydrophobic drug delivery 314 7.2.7 Lycopene 315 7.2.8 Gelatin- And chitosan-gum arabic coacervates 315 7.2.9 Various medical uses 317 7.2.9.1 Intravenous injections 317 7.2.9.2 Activity against leishmania and fungi 317 7.3 Folk Medicine 318 7.4 Cosmetics and Other Products 320 7.4.1 General 320 7.4.2 Different cosmetic preparations 321 7.4.3 Perfume 321 7.4.4 Powdered abrasive cleaners 322 7.5 Biotechnological Applications 322 7.5.1 Recombinant plant gum 322 7.5.2 Intracellular delivery 323 References 323 8 Analysis and Identification of Gum Exudates 327 8.1 Introduction 327 8.2 Industrial Gums 327 8.2.1 Water solubility 327 8.2.2 Alcohol precipitability 329

xviii Contents 8.2.3 Microscopic identification 329 8.2.4 Identification of gums in specific foods 332 8.2.5 Antibodies for the identification of gum arabic and other polysaccharides 333 8.3 Group Analysis and Identification Schemes 334 8.3.1 Characteristic reactions of gums 334 8.3.2 Cetavlon group identification scheme 337 8.4 Additional Analytical Methods 338 8.4.1 IR spectroscopy 338 8.4.2 Chromatographic techniques to identify plant gums 339 8.4.3 Fourier transform-raman spectroscopy of gum exudates 340 8.4.4 Capillary electrophoresis 341 8.4.5 Other methods 342 References 342 9 Miscellaneous Uses of Plant Exudates 347 9.1 Introduction 347 9.2 Paints, Pigments and Painting 347 9.3 Inks 351 9.4 Lithography 354 9.5 Textiles 355 9.6 Corrosion Inhibition 357 9.7 Immersion Plating 358 9.8 Drilling Fluids 359 9.9 Oil-Weil Cement 360 9.10 Binders and Special Coatings 361 9.10.1 Glaze binders 361 9.10.2 Binders for insecticides 361 9.10.3 Non-glare coatings for windshields 361 9.11 Paper and E-Paper 361 9.12 Explosives 362 9.13 Ceramics 364 9.14 Miscellaneous 365 9.14.1 Varnishes 365 9.14.2 Car polishes 366 9.14.3 Cross-linked polystyrene 366 9.14.4 Photoelectric determinations 366 9.14.5 Polarographic determinations 367 9.14.6 Abdominal ultrasound imaging and soil analyses 367 9.14.7 Vinyl resin emulsions 368 References 368 Organism Name Index 371 General Index 383