Ethnobotanical appraisal on wild edible plants used by the Monpa community of Arunachal Pradesh

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1 Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge Vol.16 (4), October 2017, pp Ethnobotanical appraisal on wild edible plants used by the Monpa community of Arunachal Pradesh Jambey Tsering 1,2, BJ Gogoi 3, Pallabi K Hui 4, N Tam 5 & Hui Tag 1 * 1 Department of Botany, Rajiv Gandhi University, Rono Hills, Doimukh , Arunachal Pradesh, India; 2 Orchid Research Centre, Tipi, Bhalukpong , Arunachal Pradesh, India; 3 Defence Research Laboratory, Post Bag No.2, Tezpur , Assam, India; 4 National Institute of Technology, District Papum Pare, Yupia , Arunachal Pradesh, India; 5 State Forest Research Institute, Van Vihar, P B No-159, Itanagar , Arunachal Pradesh, India huitag2008rgu@gmail.com Received 16 August 2016, revised 15 September 2016 The present study based on ethnobotanical exploration deals with such aspects as documentation of traditional uses, diversity, distribution, threat status and marketing potentialities of wild edible plants consumed by the Monpa community of Arunachal Pradesh. A total of 187 wild edible species belonging to 137 genera of 76 families were documented, of which almost % were recorded from subtropical to temperate region, % from tropical areas and 5.88 % of the alpine meadows. Rosaceae (19 species) was the most dominant family distributed in high Montane slopes and temperate to sub-tropical forests of Tawang and West Kameng districts. Among genera, Berberis and Rubus were the most widely consumed genera with 06 species each. Fruits (77 species) happen to be the most common edible plant organ getting consumed mostly raw (81.81 %) whereas leaves and shoots are mostly cooked. As many as 48 wild edible species were found to be extensively exploited by the local residents from wild habitat for food, medicines, rituals, traditional paper making, firewood and construction work. Thirty-two species were found to have local market value and 08 species were identified to be facing high degree of threat in the study area. Twenty two plants are reporting for the first time as edible and many other plant uses are novel. Keywords: Wild edible plants, Monpa community, Arunachal Pradesh IPC Int. Cl. 8 : A61K 36/00, A47G 19/26, A47J 39/02 Arunachal Himalaya is a part of the East Himalayan biodiversity hotspot where hundreds of wild plants are collected daily by the native people and consumed along with staple crops 1. Arunachal Himalaya is particularly rich in biodiversity due to prevalence of varied physiographical, climatic and ecological zones. The Arunachal Himalayan region is the hub of wild food and medicinal plants. The region is rich in both the biodiversity as well as the traditional knowledge associated with it. It is the home of 26 major and 110 minor tribes, making it world s largest abode of variety of ethnic tribal groups 2-3. The Monpa is one such major tribal groups found in Tawang and West Kameng districts of Arunachal Pradesh with a population of approximately 1 lac as per the 2011 Census 4. The Monpas are good agriculturists and practice both shifting and settled farming systems. They also practice animal rearing, particularly sheep and yak (locally called as Brokpa) for living 5. Besides these, the Monpas use a *Corresponding author variety of wild plants in their diet as food, including vegetable, beverage, spice and oil. The Monpas are well versed with native flora and have developed various innovative practices on wild plant utilization 6. Pertinent literature being inadequate and preliminary, the present study seeks to appraise ethnobotanical uses and the diversity of wild edible plants consumed by the Monpa community of Arunachal Pradesh. Study area The study was conducted in Tawang and West Kameng districts of Arunachal Pradesh (India) which represents % of the total geographical area of the state (83,743 km 2 ). Study site is located between 26 55' to N latitudes and between to 92 55' to E longitudes (Fig. 1) covering an area of 9,507 km 2 with elevations ranging from 200 m in the foothill region, which gradually ascends to about 7,750 m in the upper northern region. The entire region is steep mountainous terrain bounded by two international borders, China (Tibet) in the North and

2 TSERING et al.: WILD EDIBLE PLANTS USED BY THE MONPA COMMUNITY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH 627 Bhutan in the West. The vegetation can be broadly classified into 6 types: tropical semi-evergreen forest ( m), sub-tropical broad-leaved forest ( ), pine forest ( m), temperate broad-leaved forest ( m), temperate coniferous forest ( m) and alpine forest (above 3500 m) 7. The overall climatic condition of the study area is moderate and pleasant during the summer and extreme chill and biting cold are experienced during the winter. At altitude above 2500 m, chilling cold climate starts from early November and continues up to late February during which no agricultural crops are grown. Five major tribal communities inhibit the study area (the Monpa, Sherdukpen, Sajolang, Hrusso and Bugun). Among these tribes, the Monpa is the largest community in terms of population and area of inhabitance 5,8. Materials and methods Regular field trips in different rural areas of Tawang and West Kameng districts were conducted during the years to investigate the ethnobotany of wild edible plants following the methods suggested by Martin 9 and Stepp 10. A total of 240 informants of different age groups were interviewed during field exploration in 96 villages and visits to 140 forest sites. The local markets were also visited to draw food values of wild plants. The key informants during the study were the farmers, village heads, herders and traditional hunters. Semi-structured questionnaire set was used to record the abundance and harvesting frequency of wild edible plants. Observance of abundance was measured at 05 levels (DAFOR scale), i.e., dominant, abundant, frequent, occasional and rare 11, whereas, harvesting frequency was identified at 03 levels (frequent, moderate and rare). The natural habitat of each species was visited and one or two voucher specimens were collected for Herbarium preservation following the method of Maden 12. The plants were identified with the help of specialists, relevant taxonomic literatures and e-flora websites. The plants were authenticated at the Botanical Survey of India (ARUN), Itanagar and deposited at Plant Systematic and Pharmacognosy Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh. Results Diversity of wild edible plants A total of 187 edible species belonging to 137 genera of 76 families have been identified which were Fig. 1 Location of study area collected from wild habitats linked with the Monpa community of Arunachal Pradesh (Table 1). The list of species includes 78 species of herbs, 48 species of trees, 47 species of shrubs, 12 species of climbers and 2 species of fungi (Auricularia auricula-judae and Ophiocordyceps sinensis). These two edible fungi species were included in our study due to their high market and cultural values. Rosaceae with 19 species was the most dominant family getting consumed in high mountain slopes and in temperate to sub-tropical forests. Some other dominant families were Asteraceae, Berberidaceae and Urticaceae (8 sp p. each), Polygonaceae (7 spp.), Brassicaceae and Rutaceae (6 spp. each), Ericaceae and Lamiaceae (5 spp. each). Berberis and Rubus represented the two largest genera with 06 species each. Almost 83 % of wild edible plants were traced from areas of subtropical ( m) to temperate forests ( m) and nearly 11 % of wild edible plants were of tropical origin ( m). At the altitude above 3500 m, which forms subalpine to alpine forests, only 06 % of wild edible plants received support out of a total 187 species. Among different plant parts used, fruit-diversity consumed was the highest with 77 species (41.18 %). Leaves, shoots and flowers of a good number of species were also recorded as edible. Stems, seeds, roots, tubers, nuts and barks were rarely reported as edible. Majority of fruits were raw edible (63 spp.). Leaves and shoots were mostly cooked for consumption. In case of flowers, approximately 50 % species were seen to be eaten raw and 50 % cooked (Fig. 2).

3 628 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 16, No. 4, OCTOBER 2017 Table 1 Current status and traditional uses of wild edible plants used by the Monpa community S No Botanical name & family Local name; 1 Acer campbellii Hook.f. & Shoblela (T) Thomson ex Hiern** JT/HT/047/ Achyranthes aspera L. JT/HT/380/ Acmella oleracea (L.) R.K. Marsang (W) Jansen JT/HT/277/ Actinidia callosa Lindl. Thum-mrep (T) JT/HT/066/ Allium cepa L. Tschong (T) JT/HT/435/ Allium hookeri Thwaites Maan (T) JT/HT/439/ Alnus nepalensis D. Don** Mhu-sheng (T) JT/HT/011/ Amaranthus spinosus L. Khutuka (H) JT/HT/355/ Amaranthus viridis L. Fara (T) JT/HT/077/ Amorphophallus paeoniifolius Khoebi (H) (Dennst.) Nicolson JT/HT/357/ Ardisia macrocarpa Wall. JT/HT/110/ Arisaema concinnum Wange (T) Schott JT/HT/045/ Asparagus racemosus Ngalangma (T) Willd.* JT/HT/418/ Aspidocarya uvifera Hook.f. & Thomson JT/HT/160/ Auricularia auricula-judae Morddu (T) (Bull.) J.Schrot. JT/HT/383/ Averrhoa carambola L. JT/HT/188/ Bauhinia variegata L. JT/HT/205/ Berberis angulosa Wall. Lae-kanchan (T) ex Hook.f. & Thomson* JT/HT/196/ Berberis aristata DC.* Kanchan (T) JT/HT/384/ Berberis asiatica Roxb. Kanchan (T) ex DC.* JT/HT/164/ Berberis chitria Buch.-Ham. Kanchan (T) ex Lindl. JT/HT/165/ Berberis insignis Hook.f. & Kanchan (T) Thomson** JT/HT/166/ Berberis macrosepala Kanchan (T) Hook.f. & Thomson ** JT/HT/167/ Betula cylindrostachya Lindl. Kokla (T) ex Wall.* JT/HT/064/ Bidens pilosa L. Rhobashing (W) JT/HT/499/ Bombax ceiba L. Pemagesar (B) JT/HT/417/ Calamus tenuis Roxb. Sha (H) JT/HT/360/ Cannabis sativa L. Nam-khuye (T) JT/HT/139/ Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Sog-karpu (B) Medik. JT/HT/177/2012 Family Elevation OA HF Traditional uses Sapindaceae A Fermented tender leaves used as tea beverage (butter tea) Amaranthaceae 2300 F Tender leaves used as ingredient in curries Asteraceae 1600 F Young shoots eaten boiled, mostly preferred to gastritis patient Actinidiaceae F Fruits edible Amaryllidaceae 4400 R Bulb eaten cooked Amaryllidaceae 2050 O Whole plant eaten raw as salad or cooked Betulaceae D Fermented tender leaves used as tea beverage Amaranthaceae O Tender shoots used as vegetable Amaranthaceae F Tender shoots used as vegetable Araceae O Tender leaves used as ingredient in curries Primulaceae F Berries eaten raw Araceae F Leached (boil) tubers serve as food Asparagaceae O Fermented leaf used as tea beverage Menispermaceae O Ripen fruits edible Auriculariaceae O Mycelium used as vegetable Oxalidaceae O Fruits edible Fabaceae O Tender leaves and flowers eaten cooked Berberidaceae F Tender twigs and flowers eaten raw Berberidaceae 1900 F Flowers and tender twigs raw edible Berberidaceae 2100 F Flowers and berries eaten raw Berberidaceae 2800 F Ripen berries are raw edible Berberidaceae F Tender shoots eaten raw Berberidaceae F Flowers raw edible Betulaceae O Potable water can be extracted from trunk Asteraceae A Tender shoots eaten boiled Malvaceae 600 F Young petals cooked as vegetable Arecaceae 900 F Tender stem cooked as vegetable Cannabaceae A Seeds raw edible Brassicaceae F Whole plant is raw edible (Contd.)

4 TSERING et al.: WILD EDIBLE PLANTS USED BY THE MONPA COMMUNITY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH 629 Table 1 Current status and traditional uses of wild edible plants used by the Monpa community (Contd.) Botanical name & family Local name; Family Elevation OA HF Traditional uses 30 Cardamine hirsuta L. JT/HT/178/ Cardamine macrophylla Wang-hru (T) Willd. JT/HT/058/ Castanopsis indica Khe-shing (W) (Roxb. ex Lindl.) A.DC. JT/HT/256/ Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Tselagorgor (S) JT/HT/098/ Chenopodium album L. Blamon (T) JT/HT/023/ Chlorophytum nepalense Taaprong (T) (Lindl.) Baker JT/HT/014/ Cinnamomum tamala (Buc h.- Shing-tsa (T) Ham.) T.Nees & Eberm. JT/HT/144/ Cirsium verutum (D.Don) Brongzom (T) Spreng.* JT/HT/090/ Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Chulukzapa (W) Swingle JT/HT/350/ Clausena excavata Burm.f. Hrila-sheng (T) JT/HT/084/ Clerodendrum glandulosum Shingebum (Sa) Lindl. JT/HT/257/ Colocasia esculenta (L.) Ngaglin (T,W) Schott JT/HT/076/ Coriaria nepalensis Wall. Wamdong (T) JT/HT/025/ Cornus capitata Wall. Namet (T) JT/HT/035/ Crassocephalum crepidioides Tamkahru, (Benth.) S.Moore Chopogon (T) JT/HT/028/ Cymbidium hookerianum Rchb.f. JT/HT/106/ Cynoglossum lanceolatum Sancharik (S) Forssk.* JT/HT/008/ Daphne papyracea Wall. Shugu-sheng (T) ex G. Don** JT/HT/089/ Debregeasia longifolia Yangyangpa (T) (Burm.f.) Wedd. JT/HT/038/ Decaisnea insignis (Griff.) Hook.f. & Thomson JT/HT/171/ Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Schee (S) Nees & Arn. ex Munro JT/HT/359/ Dillenia indica L. JT/HT/155/ Dillenia scabrella (D.Don) Roxb. ex Wall. JT/HT/156/ Dioscorea alata L. Sumchen (W) JT/HT/397/ Dioscorea bulbifera L. Peng-khe (T) JT/HT/385/ Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. Peng-khe (T) ex Griseb. JT/HT/398/ Diospyros malabarica Ambre (T) (Desr.) Kostel. JT/HT/086/ Diplazium esculentum Kukuling (T) (Retz.) Sw. 58 Diploknema butyracea (Roxb.) H.J.Lam JT/HT/043/2011 Finsheng (T) JT/HT/033/2011 Brassicaceae A Leaves eaten raw or cooked Brassicaceae R Tender shoots and leaves cooked as vegetable Fagaceae 1200 O Nuts edible Apiaceae O Leaves eaten as salad or curries Amaranthaceae F Tender shoots eaten raw or cooked Asparagaceae O Young leaves eaten boiled Lauraceae O Bark used as condiment Asteraceae F Inflorescence edible and chewed during severe stomachache Rutaceae 2100 R Fruits are raw edible Rutaceae 1500 O Ripen fruits are edible Lamiaceae O Leaves eaten as vegetable Araceae D Whole part of the plant consumed cooked Coriariaceae F Fruits edible, excess eating may cause dizziness Cornaceae F Ripen fruits edible Asteraceae F Fleshy leaves and tender stems eaten cooked Orchidaceae 4300 R Flowers cooked as vegetable Boraginaceae A Leaves eaten raw or cooked. Roots chewed as mouth freshener Thymelaeaceae A Ripen fruits edible. Bark used for making paper Urticaceae A Ripen fruits edible Lardizabalaceae O Fruits raw edible Poaceae F Young shoots fermented and made into vegetable, condiment or pickles Dilleniaceae 600 O Fruit pulp edible, used as ingredient in curries and pickles Dilleniaceae O Fruits raw edible Dioscoreaceae O Tubers used as food, consumed either roasted or cooked Dioscoreaceae O Tubers used as food Dioscoreaceae 2300 F Tubers used as food Ebenaceae O Fruits edible Athyriaceae A Young frond used as vegetable Sapotaceae R Ripen fruits edible. Seed oil used in cooking (Contd.)

5 630 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 16, No. 4, OCTOBER 2017 Table 1 Current status and traditional uses of wild edible plants used by the Monpa community (Contd.) Botanical name & family Local name; Family Elevation OA HF Traditional uses 59 Docynia indica (Wall.) Decne. Losu (W) JT/HT/207/ Drynaria propinqua So (T) (Wall. ex Mett.) Bedd.** JT/HT/068/ Elaeagnus parvifolia Gyam-mrep (T) Wall. ex Royle** JT/HT/326/ Elaeagnus umbellata Da-mrep (T) Thunb. JT/HT/010/ Elatostema cuneatum Wight Chulukpa (T) JT/HT/386/ Elatostema laetevirens Makino JT/HT/046/ Elatostema lineolatum Dambe-hru (T) Wight JT/HT/044/ Elatostema sessile J.R.Forst. Fambe-che (Sa) & G.Forst. JT/HT/387/ Euphorbia hirta L. Yowan (T) JT/HT/079/ Fagopyrum acutatum (Leh Temo (T) m.) Mansf. ex K.Hammer JT/HT/022/ Fagopyrum esculentum Dongthe (W) Moench JT/HT/388/ Ficus auriculata Lour. Choma (T) JT/HT/024/ Ficus racemosa L. Konangsing (W) JT/HT/259/ Ficus semicordata Buch.- Ridongsheng (T) Ham. ex Sm. JT/HT/113/ Fragaria daltoniana J.Gay Sa-mrep (T) JT/HT/208/ Fragaria nubicola (Lindl. Sa-mrep (T) ex Hook.f.) Lacaita JT/HT/061/ Fragaria vesca L. Sa-mrep (T) JT/HT/211/ Galinsoga quadriradiata Salugjang (W) Ruiz & Pav. JT/HT/395/ Gaultheria fragrantissima Shagsinmrep (T) Wall. JT/HT/073/ Gaultheria trichophylla Aak-mrep (T) Royle JT/HT/389/ Gentiana kurroo Royle** Panginmento (T) JT/HT/441/ Gentiana ornata (D.Don) Panginmento (T) Wall. ex Griseb.** JT/HT/454/ Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Oguma (H) Friis JT/HT/099/ Gonostegia hirta (Blume ex Pinrapa (T) Hassk.) Miq. JT/HT/007/ Herpetospermum pedunc- Prola-augun (T) ulosum (Ser.) C.B. Clarke JT/HT/042/ Holboellia latifolia Wall. Shulumba (T) JT/HT/018/ Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Mreptang (T) JT/HT/102/ Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. Othu (H) JT/HT/367/ Hypericum uralum Buch.- Jasheng (T) Ham. Ex. D.Don** JT/HT/501/2014 Rosaceae 2100 O Fruits edible Polypodiaceae D Fleshy rhizome is edible Elaeagnaceae F Ripen fruits edible Elaeagnaceae D Ripen fruits edible Urticaceae 1600 A Tender leaves consumed as vegetable after proper leaching Urticaceae A Tender leaves cooked as vegetable Urticaceae A Tender shoots and leaves used as vegetable Urticaceae 2000 O Tender leaves consumed as vegetable Euphorbiaceae F Young shoots cooked as vegetable Polygonaceae A Leaves used as vegetable Polygonaceae A Leaves and seeds used as food Moraceae F Hypanthodium edible Moraceae 2000 O Hypanthodium raw edible Moraceae F Ripen hypanthodium eaten raw, unripe hypanthodium eaten cooked Rosaceae F Ripen fruits edible Rosaceae A Ripen fruits edible Rosaceae F Ripen fruits edible Asteraceae A Young shoots consumed as salad or curries Ericaceae A Fruits raw edible Ericaceae F Ripen fruits edible Gentianaceae A Flowers cooked as vegetable Gentianaceae F Flowers cooked as vegetable Urticaceae F Young shoots cooked as vegetable Urticaceae F Young leaves cooked as vegetable Cucurbitaceae A Fruits cooked as vegetable Berberidaceae F Ripen fruits edible Saururaceae A Leaves and roots consumed raw or cooked, also used as condiment Araliaceae F Shoots consumed either raw as salad or cooked as vegetable Hypericaceae F Fermented leaves used as tea beverage (Contd.)

6 TSERING et al.: WILD EDIBLE PLANTS USED BY THE MONPA COMMUNITY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH 631 Table 1 Current status and traditional uses of wild edible plants used by the Monpa community (Contd.) Botanical name & family Local name; Family Elevation OA HF Traditional uses 88 Illicium griffithii Hook.f. & Thomson Munshing (W) JT/HT/157/ Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. Yengjoktang (W) JT/HT/264/ Juglans regia L. Kae (T, W) JT/HT/002/ Lepidium virginicum L. JT/HT/179/ Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link Neachetse (H) JT/HT/265/ Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers. Nge (T) JT/HT/017/ Magnolia campbellii Hook.f. Wanggung (T) & Thomson** JT/HT/105/ Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. ex Pierre** JT/HT/159/ Mahonia napaulensis DC. Tsot-sheng (T) JT/HT/127/ Maianthemum purpureum Yoh (T) (Wall.) LaFrankie JT/HT/059/ Malus sikkimensis (Wenz.) I-K-malang (S) Koehne ex C.K.Schneid. JT/HT/213/ Malva parviflora L. Boecham (B) JT/HT/343/ Malva verticillata L. Boecham (B) JT/HT/187/ Meconopsis paniculata (D. Don) Prain** JT/HT/062/ Melastoma malabathricum L. JT/HT/232/ Mentha arvensis L. JT/HT/034/ Musa acuminata Colla Lamraep (T) JT/HT/136/ Musa balbisiana Colla Wegoin (H) JT/HT/396/ Mussaenda roxburghii Lebathu (H) Hook.f. JT/HT/244/ Nasturtium officinale R.Br. Silang-sag (W) JT/HT/031/ Nepeta connata Royle ex Benth.* JT/HT/003/ Oenanthe javanica (Blume) Szhing-hru (T) DC. JT/HT/140/ Onosma hookeri C.B. Clarke Grimakpa (T) JT/HT/400/ Ophiocordyceps sinensis Yartsagunbu (T) (Berk.) G.H. Sung, et al JT/HT/390/ Ophiopogon intermedius D. Domseu (T) Don** JT/HT/016/ Opuntia monacantha (Willd.) Haw.* JT/HT/235/ Oroxylum indicum (L.) Salsali (T) Kurz JT/HT/333/ Oxalis acetosella L. JT/HT/190/ Oxalis corniculata L. Pulungsukhu (H) JT/HT/100/2011 Schisandraceae D Fruits used as condiment in food and tea Convolvulaceae 1500 O Tubers used as food Juglandaceae F Nut edible Brassicaceae 1500 O Seeds used as condiment. Tender leaves eaten as salad Lamiaceae F Tender shoots consumed cooked Lauraceae A Fruits raw edible and used as condiment Magnoliaceae A Flower buds boiled as vegetable Magnoliaceae 1200 O Fruits edible Berberidaceae F Berries edible Asparagaceae A Fleshy tender shoots consumed as vegetable Rosaceae O Fruits edible Malvaceae F Tender leaves eaten cooked Malvaceae F Tender leaves eaten cooked Papaveraceae D Flowers, leaves and tender stems eaten cooked. Seeds raw edible Melastomataceae F Fruits are edible, excess eating may cause irritation Lamiaceae 2000 R Leaves used as condiment or salad Musaceae F Ripen fruits and tender stem raw edible. Flower bud used as vegetable Musaceae A Inflorescence used in curries. Tender stem raw edible Rubiaceae A Young leaves eaten cooked, white bracts are preferred Brassicaceae A Shoots eaten cooked Lamiaceae A Flowers and seeds raw edible Apiaceae D Tender shoots eaten as salad or curries Boraginaceae O Edible red dye is obtained from driedroasted stem Ophiocordycipitace O Whole part is raw edible ae Asparagaceae F Fruits and tubers are fleshy and sweet, eaten raw Cactaceae 1600 F Flowers eaten cooked Bignoniaceae F Flowers and tender leaves eaten cooked Oxalidaceae O Tender shoots is edible Oxalidaceae F Leaves eaten cooked or as salad (Contd.)

7 632 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 16, No. 4, OCTOBER 2017 Table 1 Current status and traditional uses of wild edible plants used by the Monpa community (Contd.) Botanical name & family Local name; Family Elevation OA HF Traditional uses 117 Oxalis debilis Kunth JT/HT/192/ Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill Lugsho (B) JT/HT/432/ Oxyspora paniculata (D. Don) DC. JT/HT/233/ Paederia foetida L. Shejlaojneya (H) JT/HT/372/ Panax bipinnatifidus Seem. JT/HT/240/ Persicaria chinensis (L.) Jampera (H) H. Gross JT/HT/374/ Phyllanthus emblica L. Kyurba (T) JT/HT/112/ Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Hro-sheng (T) Vriese* JT/HT/146/ Pinus wallichiana Hro-sheng (T) A.B.Jacks.* JT/HT/145/ Piper longum L. Likadu (W) JT/HT/351/ Plantago major L. Tharam (T) JT/HT/103/ Pogostemon amaranthoides Benth. JT/HT/392/ Polygala arillata Buch.- Ham. ex D. Don JT/HT/391/ Polygonum molle D. Don Chomcha (T) JT/HT/065/ Polygonum perfoliatum L. Achajay (H) JT/HT/375/ Potentilla lineata Trevir. Gyoumrep (T) JT/HT/215/ Potentilla peduncularis Penma (T) D.Don** JT/HT/141/ Prunus domestica L. Plum (T) JT/HT/001/ Prunus persica (L.) Batsch Glae (T) JT/HT/216/ Prunus simonii (Decne.) Glae (T) Carrisre JT/HT/036/ Psidium guajava L. Baghanse (W) JT/HT/492/ Pteridium esculentum Ta (T) (G. Forst.) Cockayne JT/HT/131/ Punica granatum L. Dalemshing (W) JT/HT/226/ Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. Ja-toh (T) ex D. Don JT/HT/057/ Quercus griffithii Hook.f. & Pa-sheng (T) Thomson ex Miq.** JT/HT/009/ Quercus semecarpifolia Kethcheng (T) Sm.** JT/HT/067/ Ranunculus cantoniensis DC. JT/HT/154/ Rhamnus napalensis (Wall.) M.A. Lawson JT/HT/200/ Rhamnus virgata Roxb. JT/HT/201/2012 Oxalidaceae 1300 F Whole plant is cooked as vegetable Polygonaceae F Leaves eaten raw or cooked Melastomataceae O Tender stems just beneath the bark are edible Rubiaceae O Young leaves boiled as vegetable Araliaceae R Ripen fruits are edible Polygonaceae F Leaves boiled as vegetable Phyllanthaceae O Fruits raw edible Pinaceae D Tender layers of stem just beneath the bark is edible Pinaceae D Same as Pinus merkusii Piperaceae A Fruits used as food or tea condiment, leaves as vegetable Plantaginaceae A Leaves eaten as raw or cooked Lamiaceae O Young shoots cooked as vegetable Polygalaceae 2000 R Leaves used as fermentation starter during alcohol production Polygonaceae D Stem edible Polygonaceae O Leaves used in chutney preparation Rosaceae D Roots chewed as mouth freshener Rosaceae A Rhizomes edible and chewed as mouth freshener Rosaceae 2100 O Ripen fruits are edible Rosaceae 2900 O Ripen fruits and seeds are edible Rosaceae F Ripen fruits and seeds are edible Myrtaceae 400 O Fruits edible Dennstaedtiaceae D Tender shoots eaten as vegetable after prolonged boiling Lythraceae 1600 R Fruits edible Rosaceae A Fruits raw edible. Autumn leaves used as tea beverage Fagaceae D Seed flour adulterate with cereal flour and cooked Fagaceae D Same as Quercus griffithii Ranunculaceae O Young leaves are boiled and consumed Rhamnaceae F Fruits are edible Rhamnaceae O Leaves eaten cooked (Contd.)

8 TSERING et al.: WILD EDIBLE PLANTS USED BY THE MONPA COMMUNITY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH 633 Table 1 Current status and traditional uses of wild edible plants used by the Monpa community (Contd.) Botanical name & family Local name; Family Elevation OA HF Traditional uses 146 Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Samu (W) JT/HT/005/ Rhododendron keysii Taam (T) Nutt.** JT/HT/063/ Rhus succedanea L. Woorsheng (T) JT/HT/050/ Ribes orientale Desf. Saekod (T) JT/HT/070/ Ricinus communis L. Dantha (B) JT/HT/366/ Rosa omeiensis Rolfe Sae (T) JT/HT/218/ Rosa sericea Wall. Sae (T) ex Lindl. JT/HT/052/ Rubus assamensis Focke Retsu (T) JT/HT/097/ Rubus biflorus Buch.-Ham. Bla-mrep (T) ex Sm. JT/HT/221/ Rubus buergeri Miq. Retsu (T) JT/HT/039/ Rubus ellipticus Sm. Kong-mrep (T) JT/HT/051/ Rubus niveus Thunb. Bla-mrep (T) JT/HT/027/ Rubus pedunculosus Bla-mrep (T) D.Don JT/HT/055/ Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Shomang (T) JT/HT/126/ Salix sikkimensis Shibdu (T) Andersson** JT/HT/393/ Salix sinica (K.S. Hao ex C.F. Shibdu (T) Fang & A.K. Skvortsov) G.H. JT/HT/394/2012 Zhu** 162 Salix wallichiana Shibdu (T) Andersson** JT/HT/054/ Sambucus adnata Wall. Wamdong (T) ex DC.* JT/HT/092/ Saurauia roxburghii Wallich JT/HT/185/ Schisandra grandiflora Dhatik (T) (Wall.) Hook.f. & Thomson JT/HT/158/ Scurrula elata (Edgeworth) Nyenginmrep (T) Danser JT/HT/019/ Senecio scandens Buch.- Serkiling (T) Ham. ex D.Don** JT/HT/498/ Solanum americanum Mill. Faysuk (H) JT/HT/377/ Solanum anguivi Lam. Kharangeh (W) JT/HT/275/ Solanum rudepannum Akapu (H) Dunal JT/HT/276/ Solanum torvum Sw. Kharangjeh (W) JT/HT/488/ Sonchus wightianus DC. JT/HT/339/ Spilanthes acmella (L.) L. Namlang (S) 174 Syzygium nervosum A.Cunn. ex DC. JT/HT/319/2012 JT/HT/230/2012 Ericaceae D Flowers eaten raw or cooked. Tender leaves consumed cooked Ericaceae R Flowers raw edible, pollens are sweet Anacardiaceae F Fruit oil used in cooking Grossulariaceae O Ripen fruits eaten raw Euphorbiaceae A Seed oil used in curries Rosaceae 3800 R Ripen fruits are eaten Rosaceae A Fruits raw edible, used as digestive Rosaceae 2600 F Ripen fruits edible Rosaceae F Ripen fruits edible Rosaceae 1600 F Ripen fruits edible Rosaceae F Fruits edible Rosaceae F Ripen fruits edible Rosaceae F Ripen fruits edible Polygonaceae A Leaves consumed cooked Salicaceae F Catkins are chewed, sweet in taste Salicaceae F Catkins are chewed, sweet in taste Salicaceae 2400 F Catkins are chewed, sweet in taste Adoxaceae A Ripen fruits edible Actinidiaceae 500 F Ripen fruits edible Schisandraceae 2600 O Fruits raw edible Loranthaceae F Fruits eaten raw. Tender shoots used as tea beverage Asteraceae F Flowers and young leaves used as vegetable Solanaceae O Young fruits eaten fried or boiled Solanaceae 1800 O Fruits consumed cooked as vegetable Solanaceae R Fruits consumed cooked Solanaceae F Fruits and flowers used as vegetable Asteraceae 2400 O Young leaves eaten raw Asteraceae 800 F Shoots consumed cooked Myrtaceae 400 O Fruits edible (Contd.)

9 634 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 16, No. 4, OCTOBER 2017 Table 1 Current status and traditional uses of wild edible plants used by the Monpa community (Contd.) Botanical name & family Local name; Family Elevation OA HF Traditional uses 175 Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Tae-sheng (T) JT/HT/147/ Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Baru (T) Roxb. JT/HT/229/ Terminalia catappa L. JT/HT/228/ Terminalia chebula Retz. Aru (T) JT/HT/210/ Thamnocalamus spathiflorus Rue (T) (Trin.) Munro JT/HT/138/ Thlaspi arvense L. JT/HT/180/ Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Wusu (T) Sprague JT/HT/239/ Urtica dioica L. Shouzhe (T) JT/HT/111/ Vaccinium glaucoalbum Shakshima (T) Hook. f. ex C.B. Clarke JT/HT/219/ Zanthoxylum acanthopodium Yerchengma (T) DC. JT/HT/074/ Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Yer (T) JT/HT/069/ Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Prayer (T) Edgew. JT/HT/094/ Zanthoxylum rhetsa DC. Mechme (H) JT/HT/199/2012 Taxaceae O Flowers raw edible Combretaceae O Fruits edible Combretaceae 400 O Seed kernel is edible Combretaceae O Fruits edible Poaceae D Fermented tender shoots used as vegetable or spice Brassicaceae A Tender leaves used as spice Apiaceae 2600 O Fruits used as spice Urticaceae D Tender stems and leaves consumed cooked as vegetable Ericaceae A Ripen fruits edible Rutaceae F Fruits raw edible. Tender leaves consumed cooked Rutaceae A Fruit raw edible. Dried fruits used as condiment or spice Rutaceae F Fruits used as ingredients for smoking Rutaceae F Leaves and seeds used as spice Legend: : Voucher specimen number; OA: Observance of Abundance; HF: Harvesting Frequency; *: Plants with new uses; **: New record of edible plant; T: Tawang Monpa; W: West Kameng Monpa; S: Sherdukpen; H: Hrusso; Sa: Sajolang; B: Brokpa; D: Dominant; A: Abundant; F: Frequent; O: Occasional; R: Rare; : Rare collection; : Moderate collection; : Frequent collection Fig. 2 Mode of consumption of different plant parts Observance of abundance and harvesting frequency Wild food plants were frequently sighted in all the study sites. Based on respondent information and field observation 17 species were found to be dominant in several forest areas, 37 were abundant, 69 frequent, 52 occasional and 12 rare (Table 1). 48 species were found to be extensively collected by local residents during harvesting season, another 48 species were reported to be moderately collected and 91 species were rarely collected. Extensively collected species include some common wild vegetables, e.g. Amaranthus viridis, Chenopodium album, Colocasia esculenta and Diplazium esculentum. 15 wild edible plants were seen to be extensively collected not for consumption but for other uses, such as for medicines, rituals, traditional papermaking, fire wood and for constructions. Threat status Out of 187, no less than 8 wild edible species could be seen to face high degree of threat in the study area from irrational harvesting, high frequency of collection, habitat loss and high demand within and outside the locality. This includes Asparagus racemosus, Cinnamomum tamala, Daphne papyracea, Diploknema butyracea, Onosma hookeri, Ophiocordyceps sinensis, Panax bipinnatifidus and Taxus wallichiana. As per the IUCN Red list of threatened species, only 03 plants (out of 187) were categorized under the threat list, viz. Juglans regia (near threatened), Pinus merkusii (vulnerable) and Taxus wallichiana (endangered). However, in the study site, all these species were found abundantly distributed in different locations.

10 TSERING et al.: WILD EDIBLE PLANTS USED BY THE MONPA COMMUNITY OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH 635 Market potential Market survey revealed that 32 species have local market values getting sold as beverage (Pyrus pashia); spices (Litsea cubeba, Zanthoxylum armatum and Z. rhetsa); fruits (Cornus capitata, Diospyros malabarica, Elaeagnus umbellata, Ficus auriculata, Phyllanthus emblica, Prunus domestica, P. simonii, Psidium guajava and Punica granatum), and vegetables (Amaranthus viridis, Auricularia auriculajudae, Centella asiatica, Chenopodium album, Clerodendrum glandulosum, Colocasia esculenta, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Dillenia indica, Dioscorea deltoidea, Diplazium esculentum, Elatostema lineolatum, Fagopyrum acutatum, Gonostegia hirta, Houttuynia cordata, Maianthemum purpureum, Oenanthe javanica, Piper longum, Solanum americanum and Spilanthes acmella). Novel findings Through thorough scrutiny of literature it could be confirmed that edible uses of 22 plant species recorded in the present work are new reports which includes Acer campbellii, Alnus nepalensis, Berberis insignis, Berberis macrosepala, Daphne papyracea, Drynaria propinqua, Elaeagnus parvifolia, Gentiana kurroo, Gentiana ornata, Hypericum uralum, Magnolia campbellii, Magnolia champaca, Meconopsis paniculata, Ophiopogon intermedius, Potentilla peduncularis, Quercus griffithii, Quercus semecarpifolia, Rhododendron keysii, Salix sikkimensis, Salix sinica, Salix wallichiana and Senecio scandens. Six species are presented in Fig. 3. Further, 12 species with additional uses concerning edibility are also reported. Discussion The present study has revealed that wild edible plants play an important role as a supplementary diet for the local tribal communities of Tawang and West Kameng Districts of Arunachal Pradesh. Wild edible plants of the study area also support the local economy and livelihood since majority of the poor villagers and women earn their family income through selling of wild vegetables and fruit products in the nearby local markets. It was observed that in recent years there has been a considerable change in the tribal culture so that now a large section of them depend on imported crops. However, the use of wild edible plant is still continued as and when they are available. The analysis reveals that out of 187 species, % species harvested are consumable fruits while % species harvested are leafy shoots. Similar results were also reported from other regions of the Himalaya This indicates the rich gene pool diversity of wild fruits and leaves in the region that confers scopes for further agro-horticultural and biotechnology research in the region by targeting commercially viable wild edible fruit and leaf plants Fig. 3 Some novelty in use pattern of wild edible plants a. Hypericum uralum; b. Magnolia campbellii; c. Potentilla peduncularis; d. Meconopsis paniculata; e. Rhododendron keysii; f. Senecio scandens)

11 636 INDIAN J TRADIT KNOWLE, VOL. 16, No. 4, OCTOBER 2017 for ensuring sustainable economic and livelihood security of the local residents. Several literature of relevance have also brought into light similar results from the Himalayan regions Due to easy accessibility and availability of wild edible plants, market potential within the locality had no boost till date as people directly collect plants from the wild. However, awareness campaign on the commercial significance of such valuable botanical resources is likely to change in current demand and supply trends of wild edible plants in the local and regional markets. No less than 8 wild edible species were identified as plants facing a high degree of threat perception. Apart from the food values, the locally threatened species possess medicinal as well as cultural values for which they are collected in large amounts from wild habitats. Such plants, therefore, need urgent prioritization for conservation for obtaining goods and services and ecological stability. However, IUCN is yet to conduct a threat assessment on 7 out of the 8 locally threatened species identified. The result of harvesting frequency indicates that at least % (48 out of total 187 species) are the potential species that contribute to the sustenance of local economy and have potential to ensure livelihood security to the local populace. Finding 22 plant species for the first time as edible is certainly inspiring to other researchers in carrying ethnobotanical studies in unexplored areas. Gentiana kurroo which is a well-known medicinal plant and Daphne papyracea regarded earlier as poisonous plant were found edible, which suggest that there are still lots of hidden traditional knowledge which need to be documented. Acorn of Quercus griffithii and Quercus semecarpifolia with its anti-appetite like property can be used as major ingredients for development of functional and anti-obesity food products. Besides, the traditional beverage plants such as Acer campbellii, Alnus nepalensis, Asparagus racemosus, Hypericum uralum, Pyrus pashia and Scurrula elata can also be earmarked as future prospecting plants. The present study also noted that the traditional knowledge surviving in traditions and oral transmission through generations is declining both in urban and rural areas, for which there is an urgent need to document the knowledge on war footing for serving future generations through sustainable utilization and conservation of biological resources. Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge local informants of Tawang and West Kameng districts of Arunachal Pradesh for sharing traditional knowledge and their active participation during the field study. The authors also acknowledge CPEB-II, Rajiv Gandhi University, Itanagar for providing laboratory facilities. The first author is grateful to the University Grants Commission, Delhi for providing National Fellowship for Higher Education of ST Students and also to PCCF-cum-Principle Secretary, Department of Environment and Forests, Government of Arunachal Pradesh for providing encouragement and facilities during the work. 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