Quinone Reactions in Wine Oxidation

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1 Chapter 18 Quinone Reactions in Wine Oxidation Andrew L. Waterhouse *,1 and Maria Nikolantonaki 2 Downloaded by UNIV OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS on December 2, Department of Viticulture and Enology, University of California, Davis, California 95616, U.S.A. 2Institut Universitaire de la Vigne et du Vin, Jules Guyot, UMR A PAM AgroSup Dijon/Université de Bourgogne, Rue Claude Ladrey, BP 27877, Dijon Cedex, France * alwaterhouse@ucdavis.edu. Wine oxidation chemistry involves two major steps as first described by Singleton. The formation of quinones from phenolics followed by the creation of acetaldehyde from ethanol. Quinones react with several wine nucleophiles including thiols and the tannin phloroglucinol group. The quinones can also react with SO 2 and ascorbic acid as antioxidants. Reactions with aromatic varietal thiols results in the loss of fruity aromas, and phenolics can produce brown products, both oxidative degradation of the wine. However, SO 2, ascorbic acid and glutathione all react very quickly with quinones and thus can be protective antioxidants by intercepting the quinone, avoiding oxidative degradation reactions. Competitive reaction kinetics may provide predictive tools for managing wine oxidation. Introduction The preservation of wine, as with most foods, is limited largely by its oxidation. The earliest specific report on this question was by Pasteur, who showed, comparing the addition of inert gas and oxygen to wine in hermetically sealed glass ampules, that the oxygen-treated wine aged much more quickly, and that the control showed no noticeable changes Figure 1. In fact, Pasteur attributed all aging to oxidation (1), although it is now clear that other non-oxidation related reactions do occur on aging, such as ester equilibration and glycoside hydrolysis American Chemical Society

2 Figure 1. Image from Pasteur s experiment. See Reference (1). Others have commented on the effect of oxidation as well. In the first US published book on wine, Rixford states, In a few instances, where the wines are strong enough to bear it, aging may be hastened by some exposure to the air, but great care must be taken that they are not left too long under its influence or disorganization many ensue (2). In an important technology reference text from the 1970 s Amerine et al stated that The principal changes in flavor and bouquet during aging in the wood are generally believed to be due to slow oxidation (3). Numerous other sources comment on the significance of oxidation to the stability, flavor and color of wine. It would be of great value to winemakers to be able to more precisely predict the wine s capacity to resist oxidation and/or to benefit from it. Such predictions will be based on understanding the oxidation pathways as well as the relative reaction rates of the key reactions. This report describes our understanding of one of those pathways as well as how that understanding arose. Early Studies Perhaps the first mechanistic pathway of the chemical reactions involved in wine oxidation was defined by Vernon Singleton, Figure 2. In a paper that linked the production of the well known oxidation product, acetaldehyde to the oxidation of phenolic substances, Wildenradt and Singleton proposed that the first reaction of oxygen was with phenolic substrates, and these initial products lead to the subsequent reactions. Specifically they suggest that it is catechols 292

3 that are oxidized to quinones, with hydrogen peroxide being the other product of the reaction. They then show hydrogen peroxide reacting with ethanol to yield acetaldehyde. Their data was strengthened by conducting reactions with propanol, with the corresponding 3-carbon aldehyde, propanal, as the product (4). Downloaded by UNIV OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS on December 2, Figure 2. Formation of quinone in wine oxidation as proposed by Wildenradt and Singleton, 1974 (4). Reprinted by permission of AJEV. One very important step in the Singleton mechanism was the identification of the phenolic oxidation product, the quinone. Singleton referred to this as coupled oxidation, and in subsequent papers recognized that the quinone was a reactive species. There were two proposed fates for the quinone that appeared in these later reports. The first expectation was that the quinone would be the precursor to browning, as it was pigmented, and the second was reaction with an abundant sulfur nucleophile, glutathione (GSH). Browning was and continues to be a major issue in wine and food preservation with entire symposia devoted to the subject (5). The extent of white wine oxidation can be quantified by measuring the darkening of the wine, and the amount of brown color can be directly related to chemical measures of oxidation as well as the appearance of oxidized flavors as observed by a sensory panel (6). The specific chemical reactions that lead to browning have been linked to quinones, but the pathway and products are complex (7) and only some of the brown pigments are known (8). The latter are derived not directly from quinone products but from electrophilic oxidation products of organic acids. Singleton first reported that caftaric acid was susceptible to oxidation during juice processing, and that a product was being formed in proportion to the losses of caftaric acid (9). He subsequently reported the first specific product of oxidation catalyzed quinone reaction in a 1985 report that showed reaction with GSH (10). The pathway was proposed to involve enzymatic polyphenol oxidase (PPO) oxidation of the caftaric acid, followed by reaction with the sulfur nucleophile, Figure 4. This product is found in most commercial wines, a consequence of must oxidation during crushing, and reaction with naturally occurring GSH. The observation of this product is not surprising in light of the fact that GSH is the most abundant thiol in grape juice, and is thus most readily available to react with the quinone. Its concentration in juices is reported in the range of μm (11), much higher than cysteine, reported at 8-60 μm (12), and orders of magnitude higher than the volatile thiols, at about 2-20 nm. 293

4 Figure 3. Quinone product with GSH, from Singleton et al 1985 (10). Reprinted by permission of AJEV. As a consequence of these reactions, the presence of thiols prevents the formation of brown products. Juice browning appears to involve hydroxycinnamates, as these are major substrates of enzymatic oxidation via PPO and related enzymes. However, the formation of the hydroxycinnamate quinones leads to dimeric products (Figure 4), and these products are not colored (13). Figure 4. Quinone dimerization as reported by Fulcrand et al (13). Instead, browning is correlated to flavan-3-ol content (14), which under enzymatic oxidation conditions are oxidized by the hydroxycinnamate quinones in a coupled redox reaction. The coupled oxidation leads to quinones of the flavan-3-ols, such as catechin, epicatechin and other monomers, as well as oligomers and condensed tannins. Some specific reactions of flavan-3-ol quinones have been shown to yield products which have color and potentially contribute to browning of wine and the many other flavanol-containing products that turn brown, such as apples, tea, cocoa, etc. The mechanism of product formation involves coupling between a quinone and the nucleophilic A-ring of another flavanol, followed by repeated re-oxidation of the product to an electrophilic quinone and new bond formation and re-oxidation. The product shown (Figure 5) has color due to the large number of conjugated double bonds. 294

5 Figure 5. Pigmented products of flavan-3-ols as described by Cheynier et al (14). Browning is also suppressed by sulfur dioxide, with early studies reporting that sulfite reacted with the quinone and reduced the production of melanins (15). Chemical studies of p-quinone demonstrated early on that at low ph sulfite both reduces and adds to quinones, leading largely to the hydroquinone, but also 20-30% of the sulfonate addition products depending on the concentration of the sulfite, while at higher ph, only the addition reaction is observed (16). Recent studies with an o-quinone, more relevant to food and wine, showed largely the same results, with the majority of the o-quinone being reduced to the catechol, and a fraction being converted to the sulfonate (Figure 6). (17). Figure 6. Competitive reactions of o-quinone with sulfite, from (17). Later Studies Quinones also react quickly with ascorbic acid, and this can be a very protective antioxidant reaction under circumstances where ascorbate is added to wine. The small amount found in grapes is lost during the fermentation process. Some winemakers add ascorbate at bottling as a preservative. The first demonstration of ascorbate reacting with ortho-quinones under wine conditions 295

6 was reported recently (18). The only product of the reaction is the formation of the reduced quinone, or hydroquinone. In the example from Nikolantonaki (18), the quinone was reduced to the catechol (Figure 7). Downloaded by UNIV OF CALIFORNIA DAVIS on December 2, Figure 7. Reduction of ortho-quinone to catechol. The relative effectiveness of any particular antioxidant must be evaluated in comparison with a reference reaction. In the case of quinone reactions in wine, a key effect of oxidation on flavor is the loss of the desirable aromatic thiols that provide some wines with distinctive varietal character. For instance, Sauvignon blanc and related varieties rely on the presence of 3-mercaptohexanol (3-MH) as an impact compounds that provides a grapefruit/citrus aroma. This compound is of particular importance to cool-climate Sauvignon blanc such as the wines from New Zealand (19). So, in evaluating the protective effect of antioxidants, it would be useful to evaluate the relative reaction rates of candidate nucleophiles/reducing agents. Possible reactions based on the known nucleophiles discussed above are shown in Figure 8. Figure 8. Alternate pathways for reactions of quinones with known nucleophilic functional groups and reactants. 296

7 A study of the reactions of the quinone of 4-methyl catechol showed the reaction rates of a few key nucleophile and reducing agents (18). After normalizing the rates in of the reactions, all conducted at equimolar concentrations, in terms of 3-mercaptohexanol (3-MH), it is notable that the antioxidants, SO 2, ascorbate and GSH, have much higher rates, approximately 6+ times greater. Phloroglucinol has a much slower rate, and the amino acids do not appear to react with the quinone. The consequence of these differing rates is that the antioxidants should all provide excellent protection against oxidation, even with relatively low concentrations. This would be expected as the actual concentration of 3-MH is typically a few μg/l, compared to several to many mg/l for any of the antioxidants. Thus, with a much lower concentration and a slower rate of reaction, 3-MH should be well protected even with low levels of antioxidants. Table 1. Relative Reaction Rates of Nucleophiles and Reducing Agents with 4-Methylcatechol (18) Compound Methionine Phenyl alanine Phloroglucinol methyl-4-sulfanylpentan-2-one Mercaptohexanol furanmethanethiol Sulfur Dioxide Ascorbic Acid Glutathione Hydrogen Sulfide Relative Rate Winemakers often oxygenate fermenting wines when a reduced aroma is detected. Most likely this reduced aroma is the result of the yeast producing hydrogen sulfide. As can be seen from the table, in the presence of quinones produced by oxidation, hydrogen sulfide will react with the quinone very quickly, possibly explaining the effectiveness of oxygen entrainment during fermentation at removing this off-aroma. To confirm these rates under competitive conditions, Nikolantonaki et al looked at reactions between the ortho-quinone of 4-methycatechol using multiple nucleophiles (20). The reactions were conducted with iso-molar concentrations of each nucleophile, and then the product ratios were determined by LC analysis of the products. In addition, all the products with each nucleophile were identified 297

8 by isolation and NMR spectral analysis of each component. Thus it was possible to determine the outcome of the reactions, comparing the product ratios against the relative reaction rates measured previously. In both cases, approximately 1 mm quinone reacted with 4 mm of each nucleophile. Viewing the data in Figure 9, one notes that when SO 2 and ascorbic acid are combined, the fraction of the sulfonate is very small. This suggests that ascorbic acid might react somewhat more quickly than SO 2, and that the difference is likely to be more than the 3% observed in the rate measurement experiment listed in Table 1. Comparing SO 2 and GSH, it appears that the GSH might react more slowly than SO 2, though by a small difference, and not more quickly as reported in Table 1. Also, comparing ascorbic acid and GSH, it appears that the ascorbate is the faster reactant. The competition reactions suggest a reactivity ranking of ascorbate > SO 2 > GSH. However, the rate differences between them are fairly small and perhaps of minor significance compared to the differences in concentration that are typically encountered. Figure 9. Products obtained with nucleophile pairs. AA = ascorbic acid, GSH = glutathione, PHL = phloroglucinol, 3MH = 3 mercaptohexanol. Data from (20). As phloroglucinol has a slow reaction rate, its fractional amount in any of the competition reactions is expected to be fairly small, especially when compared with ascorbate, SO 2 or GSH. The ratio of the reaction rates between these antioxidants and phloroglucinol is about 60-1; for instance phloroglucinol s rate is 1.5% of ascorbic acid. In the competitive reaction scenarios, the amount of phloroglucinol observed is about 3% of those antioxidants, exceptionally close to a prediction based on relative rates. When compared to 3-MH, the amount of phlorglucinol is also about 3%, lower than would be expected with the lower reaction rate of 3-MH. 298

9 Due to this low reaction rate of phloroglucinol, it would appear that condensed tannins and related flavan-3-ols would not be suitable substances to prevent the loss of thiol aroma substances from reactions with quinone. Phloroglucinol is a model for the A-ring functional group of the flavan-3-ols. However, despite the low reaction rate, tannins may still be protective because the concentration of tannin is very high in red wines. With amounts over 2 grams per liter in some wines, the concentration of phloroglucinol functional groups is in the range of 5-7 mm. The concentration of 3-MH is highly variable but a level of 1.4 μg/l would be a quite noticable level, and that would equate to 10 nm. Thus in red wine, the effective concentration of the tannins would be about 500,000 times that of the thiols. So, even with a reaction rate that is only one tenth that of 3-MH, the very high concentration of tannin should make these compounds very effective at scavenging quinone electrophiles, and preventing the loss of thiols. And, of course, red wines are well known to be much more resistant to oxidative change compared to white wines. The relative product rations of 3-MH compared to the antioxidants is small, perhaps smaller than might be expected, especially with ascorbate, where there is only about 3.5% of the 3-MH product. This is a favorable result if ascorbate is expected to react quickly with quinones under oxidative conditions, preventing the reaction of 3-MH, thus preserving the citrus aroma of the 3-MH from oxidative degradation. Similarly, GSH and SO 2 competitive reactions were quite fast by comparison with 3-MH, also suggesting these would be very effective preservatives for thiol based aromas. The reactions in model systems therefore predict that the substances traditionally used for the protection of wines from oxidation appear to be very protective. The next step is to study these reactions in actual wines in order to test whether or not the protective effects might be compromised by anything present in wine. It is known that sulfur dioxide binds to carbonyl compounds, but it is not known how much this might diminish it protective effect. To conclude, the first stage of wine oxidation involves the formation of quinones from wine phenolics. These reactive ortho-quinones are one means by which oxidation reactions affect wine flavor by forming covalent products with varietal aromatic thiols, reducing fruity character. Other nucleophiles and reducing agents can protects against this loss by reacting with the quinones instead of the varietal thiols. In the near future it may be possible to predict the capacity of these antioxidants to protect the wine based on known reaction kinetics and factors that may alter the effective reaction rates. References 1. Pasteur, M. L. Etudes sur le vin, 2nd ed.; Librairie F. Savy: Paris, 1875; 544 pages. 2. Rixford, E. The Wine Press and the Cellar; Robert Mondavi Institute: Davis, CA, 2008; 244 pages. 3. Amerine, M. A., Berg, H. W., and Cruess, W. The Technology of Wine Making, 3rd ed.; AVI: Westport, CT, pages. 299

10 4. Wildenradt, H. L.; Singleton, V. L. The production of aldehydes as a result of oxidation of polyphenolic compounds and its relation to wine aging. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 1974, 25, Enzymatic Browning and Its Prevention; Lee, C. Y., Whitaker, J. R., Eds.; ACS Symposium Series 600; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, Skouroumounis, G. K.; Kwiatkowski, M.; Sefton, M. A.; Gawel, R.; Waters, E. J. In situ measurement of white wine absorbance in clear and in coloured bottles using a modified laboratory spectrophotometer. Austr. J. Grape Wine Res. 2003, 9, Cheynier, V.; Basire, N.; Rigaud, J. Mechanism of Trans-Caffeoyltartaric Acid and Catechin Oxidation in Model Solutions Containing Grape Polyphenoloxidase. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1989, 37, Es-Safi, N. E.; Le Guerneve, C.; Cheynier, V.; Moutounet, M. New Phenolic Compounds Formed by Evolution of (+)-Catechin and Glyoxylic Acid in Hydroalcoholic Solution and Their Implication in Color Changes of Grape- Derived Foods. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2000, 48, Singleton, V. L.; Zaya, J.; Trousdale, E.; Salgues, M. Caftaric acid in grapes and conversion to a reaction product during processing. Vitis 1984, 23, Singleton, V. L.; Salgues, M.; Zaya, J.; Trousdale, E. Caftaric acid disappearance and conversion to products of enzymic oxidation in grape must and wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 1985, 36, Cheynier, V.; Souquet, J. M.; Moutounet, M. Glutathione content and glutathione to hydroxycinnamic acid ratio in vitis vinifera grapes and musts. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 1989, 40, Bell, S. J.; Henschke, P. A. Implications of nitrogen nutrition for grapes, fermentation and wine. Austr. J. Grape Wine Res. 2005, 11, Fulcrand, H.; Cheminat, A.; Brouillard, R.; Cheynier, V. Characterization of compounds obtained by chemical oxidation of caffeic acid in acidic conditions. Phytochemistry 1994, 35, Cheynier, V.; Rigaud, J.; Souquet, J. M.; Barillere, J. M.; Moutounet, M. Effect of Pomace contact and Hyperoxidation on the Phenolic composition and quality of grenache and chardonnay wines. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 1989, 40, Embs, R. J.; Markakis, P. Mechanism of Sulfite Inhibition of Browning Caused by Polyphenol Oxidase. J. Food Sci. 1965, 30, 753&. 16. Luvalle, J. E. The Reaction of Quinone and Sulfite.1. Intermediates. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1952, 74, Danilewicz, J. C.; Seccombe, J. T.; Whelan, J. Mechanism of interaction of polyphenols, oxygen, and sulfur dioxide in model wine and wine. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 2008, 59, Nikolantonaki, M.; Waterhouse, A. L. A Method To Quantify Quinone Reaction Rates with Wine Relevant Nucleophiles: A Key to the Understanding of Oxidative Loss of Varietal Thiols. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2012, 60,

11 19. Benkwitz, F.; Tominaga, T.; Kilmartin, P. A.; Lund, C.; Wohlers, M.; Nicolau, L. Identifying the Chemical Composition Related to the Distinct Aroma Characteristics of New Zealand Sauvignon blanc Wines. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 2012, 63, Nikolantonaki, M.; Magiatis, P.; Waterhouse, A. L. Measuring protection of aromatic wine thiols from oxidation by competitive reactions vs wine preservatives with ortho-quinones. Food Chem. 2014, 163,