The beginning of wine and viticulture

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1 Phy. Statu Solidi C, (2017) / DOI /p The beginning of wine and vitiulture Stefan K. Etreiher * phyia tatu olidi Invited Artile urrent topi in olid tate phyi Phyi Department, Texa Teh Univerity, Lubbok, TX , USA Reeived 9 January 2017, aepted 13 Marh 2017 Publihed online 12 April 2017 Keyword vitiulture, wine * Correponding author: tefan.etreiher@ttu.edu, Phone þ , Fax: þ The wild anetor of mot of today grape ultivar i the eatern Viti vinifera ylvetri. Arhaeologial, geneti, ampelographi, and linguiti evidene point to Tranauaia (today Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan) and Eatern Anatolia a the region where V.v. ylvetri wa dometiated and the firt wine made. Thi ourred in early Neolithi time, over 8000 year ago. But the earliet-known arheologial and hemial proof of wine-making i jut over 7000 year old. It wa unearthed at Hajji Firuz Tepe, a Neolithi ite in North-Wetern Iran. It took thouand of year for wine and vitiulture to reah Wetern Europe and the ret of the world. The key point of the early hitory of wine and vitiulture are the topi of thi ontribution. 1 Introdution Wine pre-date writing and the earliet ivilization by more than 2000 year [1, 2]. Fermentation i a natural and unavoidable proe, given a fruit with the appropriate onentration of ugar, water, and aid. Of oure, yeat mut be preent a well to ferment the ugar. Thee ondition are realized in the ae of (wild) grape. Thi make it highly likely that the firt fermented grape juie onumed by human wa aidental. We will never know if that wine wa any good, but drinking alohol for the firt time mut have felt magial. Anient ivilization have aoiated over 36 god [3] with wine, wine-making, the wine-pre, and even drunkenne. In thi paper, wine refer to the reult of the intentional fermentation of Viti vinifera grape. Proof of wine making require dated arheologial find uh a lay jar ombined with the hemial analyi of the organi reidue in them howing the preene of tartari aid (the prinipal aid of grape), yringi aid (from the pigmented tannin of red wine), and/or it preuror malvidin [4], remain of grape uh a twig, pip, or even whole luter, and/or trae of the DNA of Saharomye ereviiae, the yeat motly reponible for the fermentation of wine (other wild yeat die one the ethanol onentration exeed 5% or o). The hemial analyi involve Fourier-tranform infra-red aborption petroopy, highreolution liquid hromatography, ma petrometry, or other quantitative method. The oldet arheologial evidene of an intentionally fermented beverage doe not involve V. vinifera, but i neverthele worth mentioning here. It wa found at Jiahu [5], an early Neolithi ite near the Yellow River in China, dated over 7000 BCE (before urrent era). The analyi of the reidue in numerou lay jar how a blend of rie, hawthorn fruit, honey, and a native wild grape, mot likely Viti amureni whih grow in the region (V. vinifera did not exit in China at the time). Thi blend ugget that the drink wa loer to an anetor of rie wine than of grape wine. It i the addition of grape luter that mot likely provided the required yeat to the mix, thu allowing fermentation to take plae. Even though the Neolithi people who lived at that ite did not undertand yeat or fermentation, they obviouly figured out the neeary proee, and probably optimized them. The omplex ombination of ingredient alo ugget that thi wa not their firt fermented beverage. Arheologial evidene how that V. vinifera wine ha been made in the Near Eat ine the Neolithi period, whih lated there from about BCE. The Bronze Age began about a millennium later, a itie [6] uh a Eridu or Uruk firt appeared. Today oldet proof of wine-making i dated BCE. It involved the ultivated V. vinifera and it i lear that it wa not the firt wine. But the evidene of vitiulture i at leat 1000 year older and point to Tranauaia and Eatern Anatolia a the loation where the

2 phyia p tatu olidi (2 of 5) S. K. Etreiher: The beginning of wine and vitiulture dometiation of the wild V. vinifera mot likely ourred, and the firt wine produed. 2 The dometiation of V. vinifera The wild anetor of mot modern wine ultivar i the eatern V.v. ylvetri. Thi i onfirmed by extenive geneti tudie of ome 950 modern ultivar and 50 wild V. vinifera [7]. Thee tudie alo how that, after the dometiated V.v. vinifera arrived in the Wetern Mediterranean bain, it roed with and affeted the gene of the wild wetern V.v. ylvetri (the Muat of Alexandria i one example of uh a ro). Many urrent European ultivar how geneti ontribution of wetern V.v. ylvetri [8]. V.v. ylvetri i dioeiou [9, 10]: about half the plant are pollen-produing male and about half are fruit-bearing female. From an evolutionary perpetive, thi primitive (for plant) reprodutive method indiate great antiquity. The reprodution of V.v. ylvetri i mediated by wind pollination, whih i alo a primitive form of pollination. Foilized evidene of a related vine, V. indoviti, wa found in late Cretaeou layer (. 65 million year ago) [11]. The female V.v. ylvetri produe a mall number of luter with mall, looely-bound, watery and aidi berrie, filled with pip. The female reprodue by pip. When bird eat the berrie, the pip go through their digetive ytem and are dropped off omewhere far away, with a little fertilizer. And then, the new vine ha a hane to proper. But a few perent of the female naturally beome hermaphrodite and eah flower exhibit both anther and pitil. Thi involve a ingle geneti mutation [10]. The hermaphrodite reprodue vegetatively rather than by pip. If a branh lie on the ground for ome time, a new root ytem develop. In the wild, the hermaphrodite never dominate beaue the offpring are genetially weaker and et root too loe to their parent. But the hermaphrodite produe more luter with large berrie whih, at maturity, have a higher ugar ontent than thoe of female. Thi make them attrative to man. They are alo eay to propagate uing utting. The wild hermaphrodite beame the hoie of Neolithi farmer. Thu, the dometiation of V.v. ylvetri ourred beaue man eleted the bet-looking wild hermaphrodite for ultivation. Thee evolved into V.v. vinifera whih are almot alway hermaphrodite (one of the rare exeption i the female Almeria, alo known a Ohanez). Sueive eletion led to plant that produe larger and weeter berrie, with a wider range of fruit olor and other deirable harateriti. Today, there are ome 10,000 named V.v. vinifera ultivar around the world (the ame ultivar ometime ha different name in different region). Arheologit reognize wild from ultivated vinifera remain from the hape of the pip. The female pip are hort and bulky while the hermaphrodite one are thinner and more elongated [9]. When finding grape pip, arhaeologit ompile their width-to-length ratio. If the average W/L i greater than 0.70, then the pip mot probably ame from female plant and the grape were wild. If W/L i maller than 0.60, the grape were ultivated hermaphrodite [10]. The method i not fool proof, epeially when only a mall number of pip i found, a there are variation among ubpeie and external fator (uh a harring) may affet the hape of the pip. The oldet arheologial evidene of V. vinifera pip involve the wild V.v. ylvetri. It wa found outh of the Sea of Galilee [2] at Ohalo II, a ite dated. 18,000 BCE. Thi i long before any evidene of agriulture or ue of lay (the earliet jar in the region are dated BCE). Suh an aumulation of pip ugget that juie wa extrated from the grape, and then the olid leftover toed away: leave and kin (whih rarely leave trae), and of oure pip (whih often urvive). But the juie had to be kept in ome ontainer. Short of lay jar, thi ould have been the kin or tomah of a heep for example. Thee rarely urvive for millennia. We will never know if the juie that wa likely produed at Ohalo wa kept long enough for fermentation to begin. An aumulation of pip i not proof of wine. Several onverging piee of evidene indiate that the dometiation of V.v. ylvetri ourred ome 8000 year ago either in Tranauaia [12 14], Anatolia [15], or imultaneouly in variou loation beaue of the near-ontemporary evidene of dometiation. The firt piee of evidene i arheologial: the earliet dometiated V. vinifera pip were found in the oldet layer of Shulaveri Gora [16] (outh of Tbilii in Georgia), at Shomu Tepe (in Azerbaijan) [2], and SCay on u [17] (in Anatolia). The eond lue ome from tudie of grape diverity [18, 19]. Georgia ha about 500 indigenou V. vinifera ultivar, inluding ome that how great antiquity uh a the Rkatileti or Mtvane. Only a few of thee 500 are ultivated today. In Anatolia, nearly 800 ultivar have been lited. Some of them are indigenou but other have been introdued. In Azerbaijan, about 250 V. vinifera are onidered loal. Suh oniderable diverity of indigenou wild and dometiated V. vinifera peie i a trong indiation that thi entire region i where dometiation ourred and the earliet wine made. Studie of the geneti relationhip of 116 V. vinifera from the region how that the Armenian, Georgian, and Anatolian germplam are well eparated and that dometiation ould have multiple origin [18]. Finally, the linguiti tudie of Nikolai Vavilov [12] how that the oldet word for wine originated in Tranauaia and Eatern Anatolia: it i the (reontruted) Proto-Indo-European woi-no (or wei-no). A pointed out by MGovern [2] and Gorny [15], a wide range of anient language had word for wine that are derived from it, uh a windu (Hatti), ınu (Akkadian), yn (Ugariti), or wajnu (proto-semiti). The Hittite had many word for peifi wine: weet wine, our wine, new wine, honeyed wine et., but the generi word for wine wa reontruted to be wijana. Thi how that later ivilization borrowed an exiting word for wine rather than reating a new one. Sine the people who made the firt wine mut have reated the

3 Invited Artile Phy. Statu Solidi C (2017) (3 of 5) firt word for it, thi evidene upport the ame Tranauaia Anatolia loation for the origin of wine. 3 The oldet proof of wine and winemaking Mary Voigt led exavation at the Neolithi ite Hajji Firuz Tepe in North-wetern Iran from 1956 to 1977 [20]. Among the unearthed artefat were ix onionhaped lay jar, eah with a apaity of about 7 liter. Almot 20 year later, the organi reidue in the jar wa analyzed [21]. It inluded tartari aid and it alt, alium tartrate, thu proving that the jar did ontain wine. Tartari aid i the prinipal aid of grape and it mall hiny rytal are often left on the ide of a gla, epeially if it ontained aged wine. Although other plant alo produe tartari aid, it i in muh too low onentration to leave the amount found in the Hajji Firuz jar. Thee analye alo revealed that the inide of the jar wa oated with rein from the terebinth tree. The ue of thi partiular rein wa not aidental. Neolithi people lived loe to nature and knew every plant, inet, muhroom, and animal. It i very likely that they knew that the rein of the Terebinth tree had healing (antibaterial) propertie and wa omehow magial. Inide a jar, it preene would have inhibited the growth of the vinegar bateria, thu preventing the wine from turning to vinegar a fat a it normally would. Thi allowed the wine to remain quite drinkable for a long time, maybe long enough to urvive from one grape harvet to the next. Virtually all the anient wine jar until Roman time how trae of rein from that tree (the Roman uually only reinatedthe nek of the jar ratherthan the wholeinterior).the rein from the Terebinth tree ha nothing to do with today Greek retina wine whih ontain pine rein, added for flavor (and tourit). The ue of dometiated V. vinifera grape and the winepreerving tehnology at Hajji Firuz Tepe learly how that thiwa notthefirtwineever made. However,thatiteha not revealed how thi wine wa made. Today oldet winemaking et-up wa found in 2007 in a ave in Southern Armenia [4]. The ite, alled Areni-1, i dated BCE. The find inlude a hallow bain in whih freh grape were ruhed, probably tomped by foot. Thi bain, about 10 q. feet in ize, i made of preed lay urrounded by a rim to ontain the juie. It i poitioned in uh a way that the juie flow into a large buried lay jar where it ould ferment and the wine tored. All ort of remain of preed grape were found on ite, and the analyi of the reidue onfirm the preene of wine in the jar. Stomping grape by foot i a tehnique that ha been widely ued through the age and i till oaionally ued today. Thee buried lay jar ould be the anetor of the Anatolian pithoi ued by the Hittite and later the Greek, the Armenian kara, the Georgian kwevri, and the Roman dolium. Burying the jar not only helped ontrol the temperature but, more importantly, prevented the jar from raking a the CO 2 preure built up during the fermentation. 3 The expanion of wine and vitiulture Many arheologial ite in modern Iran, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Irael, Gaza, et. have been found to inlude pip of dometiated grape, reinated wine jar, and/or winemaking etup. Of peial notie i the anient Godin Tepe ite [22, 23], a Sumerian trade enter in Wetern Central Iran, exavated from 1965 to The ite i dated BCE. Numerou wine jar (. 60 liter eah) were found. Their hape wa muh more elongated than at Hajji Firuz Tepe. Thi appear to have been a torage ite. Wine wa learly kept in thee jar for ome time, and ome jar had a mall hole drilled near the bottom for deanting lee. Other jar ontained barley beer. Wine and vitiulture reahed the Phoeniian in the 4th millennium BCE. Byblo beame a enter for the export of wine, and Canaan for hipping. Canaanite jar have been found along Phoeniian trade route around the Mediterranean. The earliet evidene of wine in Anient Egypt ome from the tomb of Sorpio I in Abydo in Southern Egypt [24]. It i dated 3150 BCE. Thi i very loe to the time when Southern and Northern Egypt were united, marking the beginning of Dynati Egypt. The tomb ontained 700 reinated jar, 47 of whih ontained grape pip or even whole luter of grape. The total volume of buried wine wa about 4500 liter. It i not known if wine firt reahed the Greek iland and mainland diretly from Anatolia or if it arrived with the firt Phoeniian trader. The oldet evidene of wine and vitiulture in Greee wa found at the palae of Myrto Fournou Korifi in Crete. It i dated 2200 BCE. The Phoeniian brought wine to North Afria (Carthage) and Southern Spain (Cadiz) around 800 BCE. The oldet wine-making etup in Wetern Europe i at Catillo de Do~na Blana, about half-way between Cadiz and Jerez de la Frontera. It i in the Phoeniian part of the ite, dated around 600 BCE. It i likely that the Greek from Phoaea brought vitiulture with them to Mareille around 600 BCE. There i evidene that they imported large quantitie of wine from the Etruan, but no evidene of wine-making dating bak to the early day of the ettlement ha yet been found. The oldet wine-pre on Frenh oil wa found in Latte [25] near Montpellier. It i dated 425 BCE. The dometiated V. vinifera arrived at the ourt of Han dynaty Emperor Wudi, in China, before 100 BCE. Thi ourred beaue Wudi ent hi envoy Zhang Qian to the Wet. After a perilou journey that lated from 138 to 126 BCE along what would beome the Silk Road, ZhangQianreturnedtoChang an, the Chinee apital. Hi report inlude the omment that... people in Daynan (Yona) and Anxi (Arhak)... make wine from grape. Thee people ould have been the deendant of oldier of Alexander the Great army who ettled in thee area. It i not known who brought bak utting of thee grape to China. Maybe Zhang Qian himelf? In any ae, Emperor Wudi wa produing ome wine at hi ourt by 100 BCE. Grape vine remained a luxury for the highet level of Chinee nobility for almot 2000 year. Genghi Kahn had different word for grape wine and

4 phyia p tatu olidi (4 of 5) S. K. Etreiher: The beginning of wine and vitiulture rie wine. Maro Polo praied the fine grape wine from Carahoo (Turfan in North-Wetern China). After Juliu Cear moved Roman legion away from the Mediterranean oat toward Central and Northern Europe around 50 BCE, the Roman etablihed vitiulture in Bordeaux, Northern Frane, Wetern Germany, and even Southern England. The Roman diovered the vine ould grow in loation where the olive would not. Wine wa oon found throughout Continental Europe. Finally, V. vinifera reahed the Ameria with the Spaniard Hernan Corte around 1500, South Afria with the Duth Jan van Riebeek in the 1650, and Autralia with the Englih Arthur Phillip in the late 1780, nearly 8000 year after Neolithi people firt tated wine. 5 Conluion We will never know for ure where the firt wine wa made. Thi ould well have happened independently at everal loation within a few enturie in Tranauaia and Eatern Anatolia. Further, the arheologial and hemial proof ome from the organi reidue in jar that did ontain wine. Suh evidene i impoible to find before pottery itelf wa invented in the region where V.v. ylvetri wa abundant. For imilar reaon, we will never know if beer, mead, or rie wine pre-date grape wine. But doe thi really matter? We an only hope that wine made Neolithi people happy. What i ure i that, for many millennia, aloholi beverage were a muh afer drink than water, whih i eaily ontaminated. Vitiulture and wine pread from the Cauau region to the entire Near Eat and Egypt by the 4th Millennium BCE. The Greek made wine a very demorati drink, available to everybody. The Roman and their armie onumed oniderable quantitie of it and developed ophitiated rew pree for the ma-prodution of wine. Muh of their tehnology wa forgotten during the firt half of the Middle Age, but large-ale wine trade reappeared in the late 11th entury. Vitiulture arrived in Central Ameria with the onquitadore and then made it way to South Afria, Autralia, and New Zealand. Today, China i among the top five produer in the world (and growing), with a trong emphai on red wine. The quality of the wine produed ha dramatially improved over the millennia thank to the experiene gained by generation of vine-grower and wine-maker, a well a ientifi tudie that led to the undertanding of the importane of hygiene and of the omplex bio-hemial proee involved in the aloholi fermentation, for whih Eduard Buhner reeived the Chemitry Nobel Prize in Today, a large number of high-quality wine are produed by dediated winemaker uing an extraordinary array of ultivar in many ountrie around the world. Although the bet-known wine produed in the mot famou wine region have beome unaffordable to all but the wealthiet people, many quality wine with leer-known name are very aeible. There i a univere in wine, waiting to be diovered by the thirty and the uriou. Aknowledgement The author i thankful to S. Chatterjee for ueful diuion. Many reearher have ontributed to the earh for the origin of wine and vitiulture, but few have done a muh a Patrik E. MGovern from the Univerity of Pennylvania Mueum. Beyond arheology, the hemial analyi of organi reidue in anient jar, and geneti tudie, he organized onferene and wrote popular-level book, thu reahing wider and le-eduated audiene uh a me. Referene [1] The Origin and Anient Hitory of Wine, edited by P. E. MGovern, S. J. Fleming, and S. H. Katz (Gordon and Breah, Amterdam, 2000). [2] P. E. MGovern, Anient Wine (Prineton Univ. Pre, Prineton, 2003). [3] P. Turner and C. R. Coulter, Ditionary of Anient Deitie (Oxford Univ. Pre, Oxford, 2000). [4] H. Barnard, A. N. Dooley, G. Arehian, B. Gaparyan, and K. F. Faull, J. Arheol. Si. 38, 977 (2011). [5] P. E. MGovern, J. Zhang, J. Tang, Z. Zhang, G. R. Hall, R. A. Moreau, A. Nu~nez, E. D. Butrym, M. P. Rihard, C.-S. Wang, G. Cheng, Z. Zhao, and C. Wang, Pro. Nat. Aad. Si. (USA) 101, (2004). [6] The ity a the origin of ivilization ( BCE) involve inhabitant who have a range of different oial rank and funtion: brik maker, farmer, ontrution worker, oldier, a well a wealthy merhant, land-owner, and king-priet and their immediate taff. A a onequene, the dwelling inlude large truture for religiou or ivi funtion, luxuriou houe or palae for the well-off (uually at higher elevation), a well a muh maller houing unit for people of lower oial rank. A few very anient itie predate ivilization, uh a SCatal H oy uk in Anatolia where thouand of hunter-gatherer lived. But all the dwelling were idential with no evidene of differentiation of labor, organized leaderhip, or oial rank. [7] S. Myle, A. R. Boyko, C. L. Owen, P. J. Brown, F. Grai, M. K. Aradhya, B. Prin, A. Reynold, J.-M. Chia, D. Ware, C. D. Butamante, and E. S. Bukler, Pro. Nat. Aad. Si. (USA) 108, 3530 (2011). [8] R. Arroyo-Garıa, L. Ruiz-Garıa, R. Bolling, R. Oete, M. A. Lopez, C. Arnold, A. Ergul, G. S oylemezoglu, H. I. Uzun, F. Cabello, J. Iba~nez, M. K. Aradhya, A. Atanaov, I. Anataov, S. Balint, J. L. Ceni, L. Cotantini, S. Gori- Lavet, S. Grando, B. Y. Klein, P. E. MGovern, D. Merdinoglu, I. Peji, F. Pely, N. Primikirio, V. Riovannaya, K. A. Roubelaki-Angelaki, H. Snoui, P. Sotiri, S. Tamhankar, P. Thi, L. Trohin, J. M. Malpia, F. Lefort, and H. M. Martinez-Zapater, Mole. Eol. 15, 3707 (2006). [9] D. Zohary, The dometiation of the grapevine v. vinifera in the Near Eat, Ref. 1, p. 23ff. [10] H. P. Olmo, The origin and dometiation of the vinifera grape, Ref. 1, p. 31ff. Referene [11] The grape foil wa found in the Dean hert of India, together with dinoaur bone and egg, See S. R. Manheter, D. K. Kapgate, and J. Wen, Amer. J. Botany 100, 1849 (2013). [12] N. Vavilov, Studie on the origin of ultivated plant (Int. of Applied Botanial Plant Breeding, Leningrad, 1926); The theory of origin of ultivated plant after Darwin (Учение о

5 Invited Artile Phy. Statu Solidi C (2017) (5 of 5) происхождении культурных растений после Дарвина), 1940, tranl. K. Starr Cheter, The origin, variation, immunity and breeding of ultivated plant, Chronia Botania 13,1 366 (1951) and D. L ove, Origin and Geography of Cultivated Plant (Cambridge Univ. Pre, Cambridge, 1992). [13] A. M. Negrul, Evolution of ultivated form of grape, Doklady Aad. Si. USSR 18, 585 (1938). [14] L. Levadoux, Annale de l Amelioration de Plante 1, 59 (1956). [15] R. L. Gorny, Vitiulture and anient Anatolia, Ref. 1, p. 133ff. [16] R. Ramihvili, Hit. Arheol. Ethnol. Art Hit. Ser. 2, 125 (1983). [17] R. B. Stewart, Eonomi Botany 30, 219 (1976). [18] J. F. Vouillamoz, P. E. MGovern, A. Ergul, G. S oylemezoglu, G. Tevzadze, C. P. Meredith, and M. S. Grando, Plant Gen. Re. 4, 144 (2006). [19] G. De Lorenzi, R. Chipahivili, O. Failla, and D. Maghradze, Plant Biol. 15, 154 (2015). [20] M. M. Voigt, Hajji Firuz Tepe, Iran The Neolithi ettlement, Mueum Monograph 50 (Univ. Pennylvania Mueum of Arhaeology and Anthropology, Philadelphia, 1983). [21] P. E. MGovern, D. L. Gluker, L. J. Exner, and M. M. Voigt, Nature 381, 480 (1996). [22] V. R. Badler, Bull. Can. So. Meopotamian, 35, 48 (2000). [23] V. R. Badler, The arheologial evidene for wine-making, ditribution, and onumption at proto-hitori Godin Tepe, Ref. 1, p. 45ff. [24] D. Cavalieri, P. E. MGovern, D. L. Hartl, R. Mortimer, and M. Polinelli, J. Mol. Evol. 57, S226 (2003). [25] P. E. MGovern, B. P. Luley, N. Rovira, A. Mirzoian, M. P. Callahan, K. E. Smith, G. R. Hall, T. Davidon, and J. M. Henkin, Pro. Nat. Aad. Si. (USA) 110, (2013).

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