The Chapman & Hall Enology Library

Transcription

1 WINEMAKING

2 The Chapman & Hall Enology Library Principles and Practices of Winemaking by Roger B. Boulton, Vernon L. Singleton, Linda F. Bisson, and Ralph E. Kunkee Wine Microbiology by Kenneth C. Fugelsang Winery Utilities Planning, Design and Operation by David R. Storm Winemaking From Grape Growing to Marketplace by Richard P. Vine, Ellen M. Harkness, Theresa Browning and Cheri Wagner Wine Analysis and Production by Bruce W. Zoecklein, Kenneth C. Fugelsang, Barry H. Gump, and Fred S. Nury

3 WINEMAKING From Grape Growing to Marketplace Richard P. Vine Ellen M. Harkness Purdue University and Theresa Browning Cheri Wagner Indiana Wine Grape Council m Springer-Seiencc+Business Media, B.V I CD p International Thomson Puhlishing

4 JOIN US ON TUE INTERNET WWW: thomson.com is the on-line portal for the products, services and resources availahle from International Thomson Puhlishing (ITP). This Internet kiosk gives users immediate access to more than 34 ITP puhlishers and over 20,000 products. Through thomson.com Internet users can search catalogs, examine suhject-specific resource centers and suhscribe to electronic discussion lists. You can purchase ITP products from your local bookseller, or directly through thomson.com. Visit Chapman & Hall's Internet Resouree Center for information on our new publieations, links to useful sites on the World Wide Web and an opportunity to join our mailing list. Point your browser to: or for Food Science Cover design: Sa'id Sayrafiezadeh, emdash inc. Art Direction: Andrea Meyer Copyright 1997 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Chapman &; Hall in Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1997 A service of I Cf) ~ International Thomson Publishing Asia 221 Henderson Road #05-10 Henderson Building Singapore 0315 All rights reserved. No part of this book covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means-graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems-without the written permission of the publisher XXX Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Winemaking: frorn grape growing to marketplace / Richard P. Vine... [eta1.). p. crn. - (Otaprnan & HaIl enology library) Inc1udes bibliographicai references and index. ISBN ISBN (ebook) DOI / Wine and wine rnaking. I. V'me, Richard P. H. Series. TP548.W '2--dc CIP British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data available To order this or any other Chapman &; Hall book, please contact International 'Thomson Publishing, 7625 Empire Drive, Florence, KY Phone: (606) or Fax: (606) order@chaphall.com. For a complete listing of Chapman &; Hall titles, send your request to Chapman &; Hall, Dept. BC, 115 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY

5 CONTENTS PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS INTRODUCTION xi xiii xv 1 HIS TORY OF WINE IN AMERICA 1 Eastern America 2 Western America 9 National Prohibition 14 American Wine in the 20th Century 17 The American Wine Booms 20 2 VITICULTURE (GRAPE GROWING) 24 Site Selection 26 Climate 26 Soils 26 TheVine 27 Cultivar Selection 30 Vitis vinifera 30 Major Vitis vinifera White Varieties 32 Major Vitis vinifera Red Varieties 34 v

6 vi Contents Vitis labrusca 37 Major Vitis labrusca White Varieties 38 Major Vitis labrusca Red Varieties 38 Vitis riparia 39 Vitis aestivalis 40 Vitis rupestris 40 Vitis berlandieri 41 Vitis rotundifolia 41 Hybrids and Grafting 41 French-American Hybrids 42 Major Hybrid White Wine Cultivars 43 Major Hybrid Red Wine Cultivars 44 Vineyard Establishment 44 Cost and Value 44 Start-Up 47 Labor Costs 47 Equipment Costs 47 Variable Costs 47 Fixed Costs 47 Budget 48 Site Preparation 58 Vineyard Layout 58 Planting 59 Vine Training 60 Trellising 60 Training Systems 60 Machine Harvesting 61 Weed Control 63 Herbicide Injury 64 Vineyard Management 64 Pruning 64 Pest Control 65 Diseases 65 Insects 70 3 WINE MICROBIOLOGY 73 Yeasts 73 Bacteria 80 Molds 83 The Microbiological Workplace 83 Equipment 85 Factors Affecting Microbial Growth 87 Commercial Starter Cultures 87 Microbial Spoilage in Juice and Must 88 Wine Preservation 88 Sterile Filtration 88 Pasteurization 89 Chemical Agents 89

7 Contents vii Microbial Spoilage of Juice Concentrates 89 Microbial Spoilage of Bulk Wine 89 Detection 90 Control 90 Microbial Spoilage ofbottled Wine 90 Detection 90 Control 93 Winery Sanitation 93 Sulfite and Citric Acid Sanitizing 94 4 ENOLOGY (WINEMAKING) 95 Grape and Wine Components 96 Pectic Enzymes 96 Sugars and Sweetness 98 Late-Rarvest Grapes 99 Acids, Acidity, and pr 101 Oxygen and Oxidation 102 Sulfur Dioxide 103 Phenols, Phenolics, and Polyphenols 105 Color 106 Nitrogenous Compounds-Proteins 107 Malolactic Fermentation 108 Grape Flavors 108 Wine Blending 111 Blend Expression Rationale 111 Key ATF Blending Regulations 112 Key ATF Blending Regulations for Labeling 115 Meritage Blending 117 Proprietary Blending 118 Blending Cost Rationale 119 Fining 119 Detartration 119 Barrel Aging 120 Cost Implications 121 American Oak Versus French Oak 126 Conditioning 126 NewBarrels 128 Maintenance of Empty Barrels-Short Term 129 Maintenance of Empty Barrels-Long Term 129 Soda Ash Treatment 129 Chlorine Treatment 130 Citric Acid Treatment 130 Filtration 131 Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration 133 Unfiltered Wines 133 Packaging 134 Bottles 134 Closures 135

8 viü Contents Capsules 136 Label Rationale 137 Label Shapes 138 Label Colors 138 Label Humor 139 Label Experiments 139 Key ATF Labeling Regulations 140 Winemaking Perils and Pitfalls WINE CLASSIFICATION 148 Table Wines 148 Sparkling Wines 150 Dessert Wines 151 AperitifWines 152 PopWines WINERY DESIGN 153 Management 154 Feasibility and Finance 157 Insurance 159 Location 160 Scale and Size 162 Design Motif 163 Case Studies 163 Remodeled Small Barn 163 Simplistic Custom Design REQUIREMENTS, RESTRICTIONS, AND REGULATIONS 169 Application for Basic Permit 170 Application to Establish and Operate Wine Premises 170 Bonds 171 Environmental Impact 172 Personnel Questionnaire 172 Signature Authority 173 Label Approvals 173 Formula Wines 173 State ABC Regulations GETTING STARTED 176 Record Keeping 176 Sanitation 183 Quality Assurance 183 Analytical Instrumentation 184 phmeter 184 Brix and Balling 185 Residual Sugar 186 Total Acidity 186 Volatile Acidity 187 Sulfur Dioxide 187

9 Contents ix Sensory Evaluation 187 Laboratory Refrigerator 188 Winery Equipment 188 Scales 188 Crusher-Destemmer-Must Pump 189 Press 190 Pumps 192 Hose 192 Tanks, Barrels, and Other Bulk Wine Vessels 194 Key ATF Tank Regulations 195 Fermentation Locks 196 Refrigeration 197 Filters 198 Fillers 200 Corkers 201 Labelers 201 Materials 202 Potassium Meta-bisulfite 203 Pectic Enzymes 204 Yeast 204 Fining Agents 204 Ascorbic Acid 205 CitricAcid 205 SorbicAcid 206 Bottles 206 Corks 208 Capsules 209 Labels 209 Cases WHITE TABLE WINES 211 Grape Varieties 211 Increasing White Wine Fruit Flavor Intensity 212 Harvesting 214 Crushing-Destemming 214 Pressing 215 Brix (Sugar) Adjustments 215 Acid Additions 219 Yeast Inoculation 219 Fermentation 220 Stuck Fermentation 220 First Racking 221 Second Racking 222 Blending 222 Fining and Stabilization 223 Aging 228 Balancing and Preservation 228

10 x Contents Filtration 229 Bottling 231 Packaging 231 Records RED TABLE WINES 236 Grape Varieties 236 Increasing Red Wine Fruit F1avor Intensity 237 Harvesting 238 Crushing-Desternming 238 Brix (Sugar) Adjustrnents 238 Acid Additions 240 Yeast Inocu1ation 240 Fermentation 240 Pressing 244 Maceration 244 Free-Run and Press Wine 245 Racking 245 Blending 246 Malo1actic Fermentation 247 Fining and Stabilization 247 Barrel Aging 248 Balancing and Preservation 249 Filtration 249 Bottling and Corking 249 Bott1e Aging 250 Packaging 252 Records BLUSH TABLE WINES 255 Grape Varieties 255 Crushing-Desternming, Sugar and Acidity Adjustments, and Yeast Inoculation 256 Pressing and Fermentation 257 Rackings 258 Blending 258 Clarification and Stabilization 259 Aging, Ba1ancing, and Preservation 259 Filtration 259 Bottling, Corking, and Recording FRUIT AND BERRY WINES 261 AppleWine 262 Bramble Berry Wine 263 Blueberry Wine 264 CherryWine 265 Peach Wine 266 Strawberry Wine 267

11 Contents xi Dried Fruit Wines 268 Mead MARKETING 270 Rationale 270 Marketing Plan 271 Marketing Budget 273 Public Relations 273 Tourism 274 Traveler Motivation 274 Winery Video 275 Motorcoach and Group Tours 275 WineTrails 276 Networking 277 Education 277 Media Relations 278 Journalism Basics 278 News Releases 279 Television 280 Media Formats-Timing and Deadlines 280 Interviews 281 Interviewing Techniques 282 Visuals 282 MediaKits 283 Special Events 284 Newsletters 288 Advertising 289 Brochures 290 Direct Mail 291 Database Marketing 292 Billboards 292 Internet 293 Word of Mouth 294 Sales Promotion 294 Sales 295 Sales Personnel 295 Niche Sales 296 Winery Tour, Tasting Room, and Retail Shop 296 Customer Service 298 Gift Shop 298 Sales to the Wholesale Channel 300 Sales to the Retail Channel 301 Sales to Consumers 301 Market Feedback 302 Reselling 302 Keeping in Touch 303

12 xii Contents Testimonials 303 Referrals 304 APPENDIXA SOURCES 305 Microbiology Laboratory Material and Equipment 305 New Equipment 305 NewTankage 306 Used Equipment and Tankage 306 Grapes, Must, and Juice 306 Laboratory Ware and Computer Software 307 Materials 307 Periodicals 307 APPENDIXB ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES 309 Microscopy 309 Gram Stain Procedure 312 Apparatus and Reagents 312 Procedure 313 Malolactic Fermentation Determination by Paper Chromatography 314 Apparatus and Reagents 314 Procedure 314 Bottle Sterility 315 Winery Sanitation 317 SwabTest 317 ph Meter 319 Apparatus and Reagents 319 Procedure 319 Brix-Balling by Hydrometer 320 Analysis 320 Procedure 320 Brix by Refractometer 321 Apparatus 321 Procedure 322 Alcohol by Ebulliometer 336 Apparatus and Reagents 336 Procedure 337 Extract by Nomograph 338 Total Acidity 338 Apparatus and Reagents 338 Procedure 340 Volatile Acidity by Cash Still 342 Apparatus and Reagents 342 Procedure 343 Free Sulfur Dioxide 344 Apparatus and Reagents 345 Procedure 345

13 Contents xiii Total Sulfur Dioxide Apparatus and Reagents Procedure Sensory Evaluation Apparatus and Conditions Procedure Visual Mode Olfactory Mode Gustatory Mode Overall Impression Cardinal Scales APPENDIX C CHARTS AND TABLES APPENDIX D GLOSSARY BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX

14 PREFACE During the past several decades considerable interest has developed in the United States for the wines that are produced in small wineries across our nation. This interest continues to intensify, especially for the truly good wines that are reasonably priced. Consumers are unforgiving. Second-class wines will not be acceptable just because a vintner may be newly established. The functions that must take place in the small estate-type wine cellar and the controls that can be realistically exercised by winemasters are essential in the creation of superior products. Although wine can be a comparatively simple food to produce, it is a very vast topic. Perhaps much the same as with other art forms, it is the infinite variability offactors at the root ofthe subject that renders it so complex. There are hundreds of different vine varieties cultivated around the world, and doubtlessly an even greater number of fruit and berry cultivars. Combined with such factors as soils, climates and mesoclimates (which may change with each vintage season), cultivation techniques, harvesting criteria, and overall operational philosophy, one can easily understand the enormous breadth and depth of variation which exits. This diversity, along with more than 5 years of enological development, generates a number of different wine possibilities that can only be conceived as something vastly exponential. xv

15 xvi Preface In larger wineries, one can usually find chemists, enologists, record-keepers, viticulturists, and other well-trained professionals who respond and supervise within their respective fields of expertise. The comprehension and responsibility of estate-type winery production dynamies may weigh heavily, often entirely, on the winemaster. It is not necessary for the small winery vintner to have advanced degrees in the physical sciences, but asolid academic background is highly desired. Even so, some people are more adept than others at grasping the analytical and operational functions which are necessary in learning the elements of commercial winegrowing. More importantly, we, as authors, have been sensitive to the challenge of good questions from talented beginners and the benefit of good comments from accomplished veterans-inputs repeated over and over again throughout our experience. This book is constructed with these valuable inputs as focal points. One should fully understand the integral involvement ofthe Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) in the permits and regulations which must be complied with in operating a winery. Part 240 oftitle 27, Code offederal Regulations is a source which is quoted herein for outlining the application, documentation, and reporting forms and procedures necessary for vintners in the maintenance of a legal and sound bonded winery operation. Each state has supplemental requirements which vintners should ensure are fulfilled. There are hundreds of volumes already published that provide a wealth of information about commercial winemaking. Some that come to mind are the works ofboulton et al. in Principles and Practices ofwinemaking and Zoecklein et al. in Wine Analysis and Production, Winkler et al. in General Viticulture, Weaver in Grape Growing, as well as Gump et al. in Beer and Wine Production, to list only five of the best. These authors have made outstanding contributions in providing up-to-date technology which can and should be applied in modem-day wineries. This book is designed to be a foundation text from which both would-be and established vintners can find the elements of viticulture, enology, and marketing wine-a focal point from which the technology mentioned in the above paragraph can be interpreted and implemented. Winemaking should serve professional marketers as a reference from which to understand the rationale of methodology employed by grape-growers and vintners. This book should be of similar value to students searching for an initial overview grasp of the pathway of contemporary viniculture. Advanced amateur winemakers will also find this volume a handy guide in their cellars. Similarly, wine connoisseurs can also find value in this book for a deeper understanding of crafting wine. Overall, this work should bridge the ever-widening gap between the art and science ofwinegrowing. This book should be owned by everyone who has more than a casual interest in wine. The investment of its price should be repaid many times over with an easy rationale for beginners to understand the manner of wine made by experts-and experts to explain these ways to beginners.

16 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to thank Purdue University for its generous support in the preparation of this book. In particular, Dean of Agriculture, Victor Lechtenberg, and Associate Deans of Agriculture, Bill Baumgardt and Hank Wadsworth have given of their personal time and energies to this project. Dr. Eldon ürtman, Dr. Doug Curry, and Mr. John Trott have also answered our calls to Purdue administration for help. Dr. Phil Nelson, Dr. Randy Woodson, and Dr. Dave King, Purdue department heads of Food Science, Horticulture and Agriculture Communications, respectively, have also given us sound advice, along with considerable resources-without which this work would have not been possible. As with most every book authored amid an academic community, much is owed to all the enthusiastic students who contribute far more than is generally thought about. Thank goodness for their boundless energy. We are grateful to the Indiana Wine Grape Council for its many contributions towards creating Winemaking: From Grape Growing to Marketplace. Council President, Mr. Bill Oliver, Jr., along with former President, Jim Butler, and all members of the Council provided both material and inspirational influences. Special words of gratitude go to Purdue Extension Specialist Dr. Bruce Bordeion and Indiana vintner Dave Gahimer for their advice and contributions in key sections of this book. xvii

17 xviii Acknowledgments Similarly, the Indiana Wine Guild, from which the initial need for this book was first identified, must be recognized. Special thanks go to Bill Oliver, Sr., and Ben Sparks for their leadership in the rebirth of commercial winegrowing in midwestern America. Indiana Wine Guild President, Steve Thomas, continues this guidance and has been an essential resoutce for uso Most of all, we would like to thank OUT families and friends who excused us from considerable personal quality time in order to get this manuscript to Chapman & Hall before the deadline. To all ofyou, we are deeply grateful.

18 INTRODUCTION Man made wine long before the dawn of civilization. Paleontologists infer that crude fruit wines were familiar to early human beings more than 100, years ago. According to Genesis 9:20-21 in the Bible, Noah landed his ark on Mount Ararat across the northern border ofturkey and grew grapes for wine. Documents affirm that pre-islamic Arabs drank wine in early Mesopotamia. Hammurabi wrote strict laws for wine commerce in the 18th century B.e. The great Egyptian pharaohs enjoyed a variety of wines grown from irrigated vineyards along the Nile, and Homer wrote of fine wines made in ancient Greece. In July of 1996, The Associated Press reported that King Herod's 2-year-old wine jug was discovered near Jerusalem. It was several centuries later, during the rise of the Roman Empire, that wine was introduced to Europe, but it was Christianity which developed the wine industry as we know it today. When Christ offered the cup at the Last Supper, He willed that wine be the everlasting symbol of His blood-an event which was the motivation for monks to establish vineyards wherever they settled in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It continued in the New World-the first wines in New York and California, among other states, were influenced by the Church. xix

19 xx Introduction Wine continues to replace fouled water supplies, as it has throughout the history ofwestem civilization. For thousands ofyears wine was our most important medicine and our only anaesthetic. The "magic" ofwine fascinated the ancientsthat by simply crushing grapes wine would literally make itself. It was not until Pasteur's discoveries in 1860 that the phenomenon of fermentation could be explained-whereby microscopic one-celled plants, called yeasts, convert simple sugars into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide gas. In many countries, winemaking is conducted in much the same regard as we would preserve fruits and vegetables from the garden. They endure little fanfare about alcohol content, as it serves as a natural wine preservative, it enhances digestion, and adds to carbohydrates in the diet. The wine industry is vast--one person in every 100 around the world is employed either in a vineyard, a winery, or in the marketing of wine. Wine is, however, far from global. Some nations find difficulty in cultivating the vine because of harsh environs and other countries are populated with cultures which restrict wine drinking or are prohibitionist. Grapevines grow abundantly in the United States. In nearly every state, one type ofvine or another can be grown. Ofthe 60-odd species and thousands ofvarieties known, a greater selection of vine types can be grown in the United States than in any other country. Wine consumption in France and Italy surpasses 16 gallons per person per year, which far outpaces the average of just two gallons annually per capita across the United States. Despite this comparatively small demand, total wine consumption in the United States creates more than 530,000 jobs and in excess of $8 billion in wages, and $2.6 billion in taxes. Winegrowing in the United States is regulated nationally by the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) and by individual state Alcohol Beverage Control (ABC) commissions. Consistent winemaking success requires a systematic approach and the design herein is to help organize thoughts and materials into an efficient step-by-step methodology. It is fundamental but still offers plenty of room for variations which may better suit individual tastes. Although one should expect good results from following the recommendations made in this book, it cannot, however, be considered as any form of assurance or guarantee that any resulting product will be acceptable or superior. The text is written in the "language" of the wine industry so that, as one becomes proficient, the commercial wine literature will serve to expand upon the same fundamental precepts.

20 WINEMAKING