States and Empires in the Western Hemisphere Aztecs and Incas

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Geraldine Willis
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1 States and Empires in the Western Hemisphere Aztecs and Incas C/C Mesoamerica entered an era of war and conquest in the 8 th century C.E. with the decline of Teotihuacan / it became the target of less prosperous but well organized forces from northern Mexico / attacks opened an era of militarization and empire building in Mesoamerica / lasted until Spanish forces conquered the region in the 16 th century. The Toltec 9 th and 10 th centuries, regional states dominated portions of the high central valley of Mexico following the fall of Teotihuacan / area was the home of agricultural societies that had flourished since the late centuries B.C.E. / successor states and societies shared the cultural and religious traditions of Teotihuacan but fought among themselves. Toltecs migrated into the region about the 8 th century C.E. / Mexico would come under unified rule again / the Toltecs utilized water from the River Tula to irrigate crops (maize, beans, peppers, tomatoes, cotton) The Toltecs maintained a large and powerful army / campaigned periodically throughout central Mexico / built a compact regional empire / maintained fortresses along the NW borders to protect the state against invasion from nomadic peoples (C/C) mid 10 th to 12 th century the Toltecs exacted tribute from subject peoples The Toltecs maintained close relations with Gulf coast societies as well as with the Maya of the Yucatan / Toltec and Maya shared architectural designs and art motifs About 1125 C.E. the Toltec empire faced serious difficulties / conflicts between ethnic groups living in the capital city of Tula led to civil strife / by 1175 C.E. combination of civil strife and nomadic incursion had destroyed the Toltec state. Mexica (Aztec) Migrants into the Toltec region included the Mexica who were also referred to as the Aztec because they dominated the alliance that built an empire in the 15 th century / the Mexica had migrated into central Mexico in the mid 13 th century C.E. By 1345 the Mexica (Aztec) had settled on an island in a region of Lake Texcoco / founded their capital Tenochtitlan / would become Mexico City Advantages of the location: 1. Harbored supplies of fish and waterfowl 2. Enabled the development of the chinampa system of agriculture 3. The lake served as a natural defense warriors patrolled the 3 causeways that linked the capital to the mainland By the 15 th century powerful enough to overcome immediate neighbors / demand tribute / middle decades of the century military elite ruled the capital launched ambitious campaigns of imperial expansion / first conquered Oaxaca in SW Mexico / populated the region with colonists

2 second region of expansion was the Gulf coast then the high plateaus / joined forces with the cities of Texcoco and Tlacopan to form a triple alliance that would guide the Aztec empire (mid 15 th century) Main focus of the alliance was to exact tribute from subject peoples / food and manufactured goods / tribute obligations were at times very oppressive for subject peoples / ruling elites would at times entrust these tribute goods to merchants for trade with other distant peoples C/C Eastern Hemisphere empires and the Aztec empire 1. Unlike the eastern empires, the Aztec empire did not create an elaborate bureaucracy or administration 2. The Aztec simply conquered and assessed tribute to the subject peoples 3. The Aztecs did not establish garrisons in the conquered regions nor did they maintain a standing army / the Aztec had a reputation for military prowess and fear of reprisal kept subject peoples in line Aztec Society Information about this civilization survives due to the work of Spanish missionaries and others from the 16 th century Society was rigidly hierarchal / public honors going mostly to warrior elite / all males were considered potential warriors / commoners could distinguish themselves in battle and improve their social standing / accomplished warriors received extensive land grants plus tribute from commoners / warriors created a council to select the ruler discuss public issues and filled government positions Warriors also were provided with the best food and clothing / commoners were required by law to wear burlap garments Role of Women no public role in a society dominated by military values / had influence within the family structure / high honor as the mothers of warriors / Aztec women did not inherit property or hold official positions / law subjected women to the strict authority of their fathers and husbands / women were prominent in the marketplaces as well as in crafts and embroidery / all Aztec women were expected to marry unless they dedicated themselves to the service of a temple / principal function was to bear children, especially males / the society recognized the bearing of children as equal to a warrior s capture of an enemy in battle / women who died in childbirth won the same level of fame as a warrior who had died in battle / Aztec women had the responsibility of raising the children and preparing food for their family Priestly Class ranked among the Aztec elite / received special education in calendrical and ritual lore / presided over religious ceremonies that were viewed as crucial for the success of the society and continuation of the world / priests read omens and explained forces that drove the world / maintained great influence over rulers some priests would even become rulers Montezuma II (r ) ruled when the Spanish arrived in Cultivators and Slaves bulk of population lived in hamlets and worked the chinampas and fields allocated to their clans / also worked lands awarded to aristocrats and warriors / contributed labor to public works projects / delivered periodic tribute payments to state agents for

3 distribution to the elite classes or storage in state granaries and warehouses. Slaves usually worked as domestic servants / most slaves were not foreigners but rather Aztec who had been sold into slavery by their family due to financial distress / other slaves were criminals Craftsmen and Merchants Skilled craftsmen who worked with gold and silver for the elite could gain a high level of respect and prestige within the Aztec society / merchants specializing in long-distance trade important but tenuous position in Aztec society since they were at times seen as greedy profiteers / they supplied the elite with exotic products such as gems, tropical bird feathers and animal skins / merchants dealing in long-distance trade also functioned as spies since they could provide political and military intelligence about the regions they visited / warriors would sometimes extort wealth and goods from merchants who lacked a powerful patron Aztec Religion The Mexica (Aztec) adopted many of the earlier cultural traditions of the Olmec and other societies when they migrated and settled in the central regions of Mexico / calendar (365 days) ball game and religious traditions. Adopted two major gods from earlier Mesoamerican societies: 1. Tezcatlipoca powerful figure, giver and taker of life patron deity of warriors 2. Quetzalcoatl supported arts, crafts and agriculture Aztec believed that the gods set the world in motion through acts of individual sacrifice / letting their blood flow gave he earth its moisture / to propitiate the gods and ensure the continuation of the world the Aztec honored their deities through sacrificial bloodletting. The religious beliefs and bloodletting rituals reflect the desire to maintain an agricultural society. Aztec priests also presided over human sacrifice this is common of earlier Mesoamerican societies / ritual human sacrifice was essential for the world s survival. The Aztec, however, put a greater emphasis on this practice than earlier societies. The Aztec enthusiasm for human sacrifice followed their devotion to the god Huitzilopochtli patron of Aztec warriors / as military successes increased so did the demand for sacrificial victims. Spanish conquerors found thousands of skulls and severed limbs of sacrificial victims in temples dedicated to Huitzilopochtli. Some of the victims were criminals, others came as tribute from neighboring peoples, and some were captured in battle. The Aztec viewed human sacrifice as essential for the world s survival, not some gruesome form of entertainment. The blood of sacrificial victims maintained the sun and secured the moisture required to maintain their agricultural society.

4 States and Empires in South America: The Inca South American societies had no form of writing prior to the arrival of the Spanish in the early 16 th century. Result: Historical evidence of the experiences of these societies is based more on archaeological findings and the writings of the Spanish. C/C As in Mesoamerica, the cities and secular government soon overshadowed ceremonial centers and priestly regimes C.E. The Emergence of the Inca C/C following the disappearance of the Chavin and Moche societies, autonomous regional states organized public affairs in South America / frequently clashed / controlled the mountain regions and coastal plains. Mid 13 th century Inca society began to expand / dominated other regional states such as the Chucuito and Chimu / Inca finally settled in the region of Lake Titicaca 1438 Inca ruler launched military campaigns to expand Inca authority / extended control to the southern and northern highlands and then to the coastal kingdom of Chimu / the Chimu submitted to the Inca after the Inca gained control of the waters that supplied the Chimu irrigation system (C/C) Late 15 th century Inca empire stretched 2500 miles modern Quito to Santiago / ruled as a military and administrative elite / led armies composed mostly of conquered peoples / they also staffed the bureaucracy that managed political affairs. The Inca were able to control larger populations by taking hostages from the ruling classes and forcing them to live at the Inca capital. When subject peoples rebelled, the Inca armies forced them to leave their traditional home regions and live in new distant territories of the empire. Quipu and Administration Administration was controlled by a large class of bureaucrats / absence of script writing bureaucrats utilized a mnemonic aid known as quipu / Quipu was utilized for maintaining and tracking responsibilities / an a array of small cords-various colors and lengths suspended from a larger cord experts tired a series of knots in the small cords ot represent various pieces of information / most information related to population, state property, taxes, and labor services that were owed to the government. Inca capital Cuzco administrative, religious and ceremonial center of the empire / most prominent residents- rulers, high nobility, priests of religious cults and hostages who lived with their families under the surveillance of Inca guards. Infrastructure temples and palaces, buildings of red stone, extensive road system / road system was critical for maintaining Inca centralization

5 Inca Society and Religion Trade Inca society did not develop a large class of merchants or skilled craftsmen / local bartering for surplus agricultural production and handcrafted goods / long distance trade was supervised by the government / the Inca state did not permit individuals to become independent merchants / no market economy no opportunity for a large class of professional, skilled craftsmen to develop Skilled craftsmen were less prominent in Inca society than in Mesoamerican societies. Class Structure Main classes were rulers, aristocrats, priests, and peasant cultivators of common birth. Inca considered the chief ruler a deity descended from the sun / in theory, this god-king owned all land, livestock, and property in the Inca empire / governed as an absolute and infallible ruler / Inca rulers maintained their prestige after death / descendants mummified their remains / regarded the dead kings as intermediaries with the gods / Inca god-kings allocated land to their subjects who cultivated the land on behalf of the state. Inca aristocrats and priests also led privileged lives / consumed fine foods and dresses in embroidered clothes provided by the commoners Priests often came from royal and aristocratic families / led celibate, ascetic lives / influenced Inca society educated and responsible for overseeing religious rituals Cultivators were mostly peasants of common birth / worked land allocated tot hem / supplied substantial portions of the harvest to the bureaucrats / surplus production went to the elite classes and into state warehouses for the support of widows, orphans, or others unable to cultivate land for themselves / commoners also owed compulsory labor services to the Inca state. Inca Religion Ruling class venerated the sun as a god and as their major deity (Inti) Also recognized the moon, stars, planets and rain along with other natural forces as divine / priests honored their deities with sacrifices usually in the form of agricultural products or animals Inca religion also had a strong moral dimension / taught a concept of sin as a violation of society or natural order / believed in a life after death individuals would be rewarded based on the quality of their earthly life / sin would be bring disaster for the individual and the community / Incas also observed rituals of confession and penance

Before Contact with Europeans

Before Contact with Europeans Introduction Migration to the Americas Early migrations from northern Asia to Alaska occurred 35,000 to 15,000 years ago Some contact with Polynesians possible Geography Great