3.6 Community management of forest coffee landscapes in Ethiopia

Transcription

1 3.6 Community management of forest coffee landscapes in Ethiopia Regassa Feyissa, Genene Gezu, Bayush Tsegaye and Kassahun Tesfaye Coffee genetic resources in Ethiopia Ethiopia is the primary centre of origin and diversity for arabica coffee, which is the country s most important crop in terms of its economic contribution. The Afromontane rainforests of south-western and south-eastern Ethiopia are home to wild populations of Coffea arabica. The original coffee habitats and major coffee-growing areas of Ethiopia are illustrated in Figure In Ethiopia, very few forests are maintained, mainly due to high population pressures. The forests that remain are basically those in which we can find wild populations of coffee. The presence of coffee and its important requirement for shade has contributed to forest conservation (Senbeta et al., 2007). This ecological service of the coffee production system for biodiversity conservation can be considered even more valuable if we look at the fact that the Afromontane Eritrea Original coffee habitat Secondary areas of cultivation Sudan Ethiopia The Great Rift Valley Gojam Addis Ababa Wellega Limu Welo Djibouti Dire Dawa Haraghe Arsi Jimma South Sudan Keffa Sidamo Bale Kenya Somalia Figure Map of Ethiopia, illustrating original coffee habitats and secondary areas of coffee cultivation.

2 Community management of forest coffee landscapes in Ethiopia 157 rainforests, in which we find the wild coffee populations, include over 700 vascular plant species, comprising about 11% of Ethiopia s total flora (Senbeta, 2006). Wild coffee plants are usually found in patches in the understorey of the forest. Traditionally, local communities either harvest the berries of those wild populations without much interference in the forest, or manage the forest to increase coffee production. Analysis of the genetic diversity of coffee populations collected from different coffee ecologies confirms the presence of a genetic diversity that is specific to each of them (Tesfaye, 2006). More than 130 landraces have been identified in these coffee ecologies (Teketay and Tigneh, 1994). In order to conserve coffee genetic resources we need to focus on the variation among and within these coffee ecologies. One particular problem, from a biodiversity point of view, is that the application of traditional management practices has a negative impact on the structure and composition of communities and species diversity in the forest (Senbeta, 2006). At present, in cases where the intensification of coffee production is promoted by the government, the balance between the conservation of forest ecology and coffee production has been destabilized. Furthermore, the pressures of a growing population are causing the transformation of coffee forests or production areas into crop-land for food production. Most arabica coffee can be found in Ethiopia at altitudes ranging between 1500 m and 1900 m. However, in the very wet south-west of the country, we can also find forest coffee at an elevation as low as 1000 m, while in other regions we find it growing in forest gardens as high as 2500 m (Edwards, 1991). The phenotypic diversity of coffee in Ethiopia is manifested in leaf shape, colour and size, in bean shape and size, in branching habit, as well as in tree shape. The inherent genetic traits and conditions that occur within different coffee ecologies influence the type of coffee flavour and natural qualities (Labouisse et al., 2008). Coffee production systems Coffee production in Ethiopia is based on forest coffee (FC), semi-forest coffee (SFC), small-scale farmers forest garden coffee (FGC) and large-scale commercial coffee plantations (CCP), which covers a wide range of complex landscapes. The first three production systems are of a traditional nature, in which predominantly small-scale farmers are responsible for the management of the coffee production. The fourth, CCP, is a modern production system. The high population density of the highlands of the country does not allow much space for the establishment of new, intensively managed commercial coffee plantations. Forest coffee system Since wild coffee plants grow as understorey plants in the forest, local farmers are able to simply pick the coffee berries from those plants. Forest coffee requires very little in the way of management interference in the forest for improving production. In the FC system, the floristic composition, diversity and structure of the forest is little modified or affected by human interference. The occurrence of coffee plants in coffee ecologies is defined by a series of natural and, to some degree, human influences

3 158 Regassa Feyissa et al. (Senbeta, 2006). Estimates of the contribution made by this system to the national production vary between 5% and 10%, as indicated in Table The FC system was originally assumed to host the largest genetic diversity of (wild) coffee plants (Senbeta et al., 2007). Semi-forest coffee system In the SFC production system, coffee is grown under natural conditions. The plants are wild, but human selection and the management of their environment affect their distribution and even their genetic make-up. In order to improve productivity in the SFC system, farmers regularly remove understorey trees, shrubs and lianas. Even though the production systems form a continuum, the human impact on plant composition and the reduction of plant density distinguish the SFC system from the FC system. Coffee plants become dominant in the SFC system because management suppresses tree regeneration and reduces tree density, leading to the disappearance of some forest species. In the forest structure, this modification leads to the formation of a tall tree canopy for shade and a coffee canopy layer, without the original intermediate canopy layers. These management practices result in a reduction of 25% in individuals per hectare as compared with the FC system. It could be said that within the SFC system the communities manage or rather domesticate the forest landscape to increase production and the productivity of the coffee trees. We can thus consider that the SFC constitutes a landscape that is more domesticated, since its productivity has increased (Clement, 1999; Peroni et al., Chapter 3.4). The SFC system comprises about 35% of the national production. The SFC system has a high level of genetic diversity, despite or rather because of human intervention. This has been shown in a comparative analysis of FC and SFC systems (Tesfaye, 2006). A reason for this higher diversity is that the removal of small trees and understorey shrubs leads to a reduction in genetic erosion at coffee seedlings stage, since there is less competition with plants of other species. Seed flow among wild coffee populations is enhanced during such thinning and gap-filling practices. Seed and pollen flows result in an increase in the genetic diversity of the population in Table Characterization of coffee production systems in Ethiopia Production system Coffee genetic resources Type of producer Contribution to national production Forest coffee (FC) Native plants and barely Extraction under common 5 10% managed habitat property regime Semi-forest coffee Native plants in a Extraction under common 35% (SFC) domesticated landscape property regime Forest garden Local varieties Small-scale farmer 45% coffee (FGC) (landraces) in mixed cultivation farming Commercial coffee Improved varieties in Large-scale plantations 15% plantations (CCP) monoculture Sources: Senbeta et al. (2007); Labouisse et al. (2008).

4 Community management of forest coffee landscapes in Ethiopia 159 this type of managed forest. However, as soon as coffee management intensifies and begins selecting for some specific coffee genotypes by favouring more uniform stands, the original increase in coffee genetic diversity is halted (Senbeta et al., 2007). Forest garden coffee and commercial coffee plantation systems There are two further coffee production systems in Ethiopia. In the FGC system, farmers select local coffee varieties for cultivation in small, shaded stands in the area surrounding the household residence. The FGC system is a completely managed agro-forestry system where coffee is cultivated in association with other crops such as ensete (Ensete ventricosum), fruit trees and chat (Catha edulis). Trees create the shade, albeit in a much lower density than in the SFC system. The diversity in crops is high, but compared with the SFC the diversity of the species accompanying the coffee, and the degree of diversity of the coffee plants themselves, is reduced. As indicated in Table 3.6.1, this small-scale farmer coffee system accounts for a major share of the national production. The remaining system of large-scale commercial coffee plantations is relatively less significant. Under the CCP system, improved commercial cultivars with high productivity are cultivated under intensive management on private and state-owned farms. Challenges to the traditional coffee production systems Between 1973 and 2005, the conversion of forest-land into crop-lands in the Afromontane rainforests led to a reduction in FC and SFC systems from 71% to 48% of the original coffee stands (Wakjira, 2007). This land-use change led in turn to an increase in CCP systems and the replacement of many of the original diverse coffee populations with genetically narrow-based (improved) varieties. As such, deforestation and the promotion of modern commercial coffee plantations threaten the natural gene pool, which is rich in variation and in harmony with its landscape. The traditional production systems (FC, SFC and FGC) face many other less obvious challenges. The lack of attention given to them is important in terms of technical assistance and extension. At the same time, disagreements exist on technical issues, such as on the number of trees that need to be thinned out in the SFC system. Interest in maintaining the forest cover while increasing coffee productivity is also an issue. The traditional systems are not recognized as having a good potential by government and concerned bodies. The push for modernization of coffee production systems ignores and does not invest in the potential of the traditional systems. A major threat to the traditional coffee production system and the genetic diversity it harbours is the pressure exerted on the Afromontane forests by population growth. A conversion of the FC into SFC and FGC production systems eventually results in the loss of coffee genetic resources, loss of biodiversity and the ecological services of coffee forest. The fact that both production and biodiversity conservation goals can be achieved in the traditional systems has attracted the attention of some bodies within the Ethiopian government. Nevertheless, in order to support the traditional systems, a paradigm shift is required from those research and extension agencies that

5 160 Regassa Feyissa et al. continue to focus their attention on the production and export of large quantities of coffee, through intensive, highly productive and less quality-oriented systems. Conservation of coffee genetic resources and its challenges Different approaches and techniques may be applied to maintain coffee genetic resources. In designing coffee genetic resource conservation strategies it should be realized that the mid- or long-term storage of coffee seed under sub-zero temperatures is problematic since the seed does not survive desiccation to a low level of moisture content. Field gene banks and different in vitro techniques are used for ex situ conservation of coffee germplasm. Experiences of the Ethiopian coffee field gene bank show that some coffee types are sensitive to temperature, which is one of the factors that reduce the viability of the collection in the field gene bank. When coffee collections from higher elevations were maintained at lower elevations, for example, some accessions suffered stunted growth and chlorophyll disintegration, resulting in the production of physiologically deformed coffee beans. It may be concluded that it is not possible to maintain coffee collections from different agro-ecological conditions in one location, making the field gene bank an institutionally and logistically difficult and demanding conservation strategy. Since forest coffee is sensitive to symbiotic relationships with other plant species and microorganisms, and the disruption of this relationship usually causes changes in the viability of the genotype, in situ conservation in original forest habitats or ecologies emerges as the most viable strategy. The conservation of the forest coffee landscape allows for the interaction of multiple species, the continuum of evolutionary processes and the continuation of the relationship between coffee genetic resources and the managed forest. In this manner, in situ conservation is achieved by maintaining a dynamic pattern of interactions between coffee genetic resources, the forest environment and its associated people (De Boef and Thijssen, Chapter 1.8). It can be assumed that the more dynamic these interactions are, the more diverse in biochemical, physiological and behavioural traits the coffee genetic resources will be. The simplification of human ecological interactions and habitat structure, as is usually the case if accessions are maintained in field gene banks, may cause a speedy decline in the diversity of phenotypic and genotypic traits. As such, maintaining coffee under reduced ecological complexity may not enable the conservation of the full range of diversity it exhibits in forest habitats and landscapes. Conservation strategies can allow for the continued domestication of the forest coffee landscapes, thereby contributing to the domestication process of coffee as a cultural keystone species, as discussed by Peroni et al. (Chapter 3.4). Interdisciplinary approaches that involve fields such as population ecology, community ecology, landscape ecology and ethnobotany need to be adopted in efforts to conserve the forest coffee landscapes that are essential for the conservation of forest coffee genetic resources. For the conservation of the cultivated coffee landraces, conservation practices associated with in situ conservation on-farm are more appropriate. We need to strengthen the capacities of farmers in maintaining and using coffee landraces in the forest gardens where the coffee genetic resources have developed their own distinctive prop-

6 Community management of forest coffee landscapes in Ethiopia 161 erties. This shows that complementary strategies are required for the in situ conservation of the different coffee genetic resources associated with their original production system. The regulation of forest access: customary systems under threat De facto local communities are often the primary custodians of coffee genetic resources. Their management is highly site-specific, culturally influenced, diverse and is based on the maintenance of the forest structure and its species diversity. Their traditional knowledge of the local ecology, forest landscape, its species and coffee diversity, is based on a culture of the shared notion of kinship, taboos and rituals. This culturebased management results in shared community values concerning the landscape and the resources. Traditionally, forest resources are perceived as common property that is governed by open-access regimes. Many coffee forests in Ethiopia fall under such regimes, where exclusion in some cases is difficult and common access can sometimes lead to conflict. These traditional access regimes are subject to local social conditions. Ownership of the resources is not absolute; it involves the relationship between the resources and communities, where individuals or groups have rights over the resources that are socially determined in traditional common property regimes at community level. In this respect, coffee genetic resources in the FC and SFC production systems are intimately tied to local communities, and the fate of the diverse coffee gene pool partly depends on the continued relationship of the communities with the landscape. However, as time and situations change, this relationship is weakening, as are social and communal entitlements concerning the use of the resources. The strengthening of forest coffee management: experiences from Harrena Much of the forest coffee in Ethiopia is an open-access resource, to which individuals and groups have free access for different kinds of use. Coffee can be harvested for household use and for sale. Customary regimes are closely observed when accessing the forest resources. However, access to the resources sometimes goes beyond those systems that regulate the use of the resources. This happens mainly when individuals or groups migrate to natural forests for seasonal coffee harvesting. The Harrena coffee forest is one of the few remaining natural forests that are exposed to such access by seasonal gatherers. Usually, coffee that is harvested through open access does not meet the desired level of quality. Open access can also be the cause of harm to standing trees. These gatherers harvest both ripe and unripe cherries together, giving a mixture during drying which spoils the quality. Since local markets primarily are oriented towards quantity rather than quality, prices do not encourage proper coffee harvesting and processing. This situation necessitated a change in attitude and management practices, and also in the structure of the coffee market. In 2006, Ethio-Organic Seed Action (EOSA), in collaboration with partners, took the initiative to enhance community ownership

7 162 Regassa Feyissa et al. over resources and promote the sustainable development of Harrena forest coffee through market incentives. The market incentives generated economic benefits that helped to improve the quality of coffee through the promotion of proper harvesting and processing techniques. Local communities were assisted in social and market organization, and were provided with training in, and the facilities for, harvesting and processing. The project also facilitated the establishment of a secure premium price for Harrena forest coffee. After the local communities had been trained in best practices, the harvested coffee was awarded premium grades. For the first time in history, coffee from Harrena was finally recognized and thereby rewarded for its quality. We conducted laboratory analysis on the cup quality of the coffee from three different micro-ecologies of the same forest, which exhibited specific flavours as spicy, ginger and mocha. Recognition of coffee from their forest excited the communities even more than the premium price; it motivated them to take more responsibility to safeguard the forest. This approach has served as a useful lesson that has encouraged many, including policy-makers, who have concerns over the threat to the forest coffee resource base in the country. Challenges and opportunities for premium market coffee Coffee from natural Ethiopian forest is organic by default. There is potential for linking such coffee to niche and international markets, which can reward communities with a price that could be an incentive for sustainable management and for the use of traditional management systems (FC, SFC and FGC). It is necessary to upgrade the techniques for coffee harvesting, processing and packaging associated with the management practices of each production system. These investments are a prerequisite to ensuring access to premium markets. Product labelling such as environmental certification, geographic origin and fair trade have great advantages but also require a high level and quality of organization by the producers, as well as the enhancement of the structure in the value chain to assure consumers of the reliability of quality as well as provenance. This could be a strategy for communities to be rewarded for their custodianship through the continued management of forest coffee landscapes and associated traditional coffee production systems, thereby contributing to the continued process of coffee domestication and evolution in its original and unique habitat in the Afromontane rainforests of Ethiopia.