Middle Tennessee State University Historic Salt Works in Arkansas

Transcription

1 Middle Tennessee State University Historic Salt Works in Arkansas Background and Five Year Plan for the Development of the Arkansas Salt Works Project. Kelsey Fields 12/12/2011

2 Contents Introduction... 1 Pre-historic Era Background... 1 Historic Era Background... 3 Plan of Action... 7 Years Years Year Lesson Plan... 9 Sample Exhibit Panels Bibliography Appendices Appendix A: Salt of the Earth: A Caddo Industry in Arkansas Appendix B: Currently Available Materials for use with the Historic Arkansas Salt Works Lesson Plan... 37

3 Fields 1 Introduction Saline County, Arkansas was founded in 1835 and some of its early history remains unrecorded, confused or at the very least, incomplete. As the area school children are told, the county was named Saline after the local salt works on the Saline River. However, the only salt works discussed in the curriculum for local history focus entirely on the Caddo IV period (circa C.E.) salt works south of Saline County in a salt marsh unconnected to the Saline River. 1 While this site has been studied by archaeologists, the documented historic era salt works in the state have not. The residents of Saline County and the surrounding areas would benefit from the clarification of the extent and location of historic salt works in Saline County and the State through archaeological research and additional historical research. Findings from this proposed research will result in more accurate lesson plans for school age children, interpretation of archaeological and historical findings for the general public. The completed project will also offer a venue to educate the general public regarding the importance of the salt trade in Arkansas s history. Pre-historic Era Background During the Jurassic Period, the basin area now known as the Gulf of Mexico began opening. The Gulf of Mexico acted as a great evaporating basin, concentrating the waters of the Atlantic, precipitating salt and gypsum. 2 This layer of precipitated salt eventually became compacted and is currently known as the Louann Salt Stratigraphic Layer. 3 This layer is continuous from the Gulf of Mexico through Texas, Louisiana, and into Arkansas, south of the Ouachita Mountains. Later, in the Cretaceous Period, a geologic event occurred opening the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico. Geologists have hypothesized that this occurred when an event, like the cooling of a hotspot within the earth s crust, broke the Ouachita-Appalachian

4 Fields 2 Mountain Chain into the separate chains that they are today. 4 This opened a valley through which the Mississippi River could begin flowing into the Gulf. However, due to the high sea levels of the Cretaceous Period, some million years ago, the valley filled instead with water from the Gulf, creating a shallow, salt-water bay called the Mississippi Embayment. This bay allowed for the deposition of gypsum and anhydrite in highly saline waters in southwest Arkansas. 5 This explains the presence of salt in the area. The importance of that mineral was to shape much of the history to follow. As the shallow sea eventually evaporated, the salt left behind proved necessary for supporting the lives of large mammals, like deer and bison, as well as humans. Salt was furthermore necessary for early humans to preserve food, tan leather, and was even used as a disinfectant. As such an important resource, salt has been produced in Arkansas since pre-historic times. Pre-historic production of salt is taught to Arkansas school children. A recently updated lesson plan compiled by the Butler Center for Arkansas Studies is devoted to this pre-historic Production. Salt of the Earth: A Caddo Industry in Arkansas utilizes some of the basic findings of the Hardman Settlement s archaeological investigation to introduce fifth through eighth grade students to the topic of salt production. The majority of this is done by showing the students an artist s rendering of the settlement circa 1500 B.C.E. This image shows the Caddo going to the stream to gather water. The water is then put in nearly flat, round, ceramic pans near a large fire. Such shallow ceramic pans were discovered through archaeological research. 6 The actual archaeological process and finds at Hardman, a site in Clark County, are not discussed in the plans. However, discussion of a possible Caddoan salt-trading network along Arkansas s navigable water ways hints at the importance that salt played in trade and offers an

5 Fields 3 opportunity to discuss the role that trade plays in acculturation. The lesson plans briefly glimpse historic era salt production in Arkansas as the plans call for teachers to discuss with the students, the type of salt pan that European settlers used to evaporate water in for salt production. 7 Yet, deeper discussion of historic era salt production is missing from the teacher s resources. This proves to be a disservice to Arkansas s students, especially to those living in the historic era salt producing areas of Arkansas, such as Saline, Clark, Sevier, and even Sebastian Counties. As students of history know, resources to be exploited often shape human behaviors. Historic Era Background As in the pre-historic era, salt was a valuable and necessary commodity for early European-American settlers. In the era prior to refrigeration, salt was necessary for the preservation of food in the form of salting and pickling. This process inhibited the growth of bacteria and was used to preserve everything from meat to vegetables and cheese. Because of the wide range of uses for salt and its scarcity, one s discovery of a well producing brine spring with access to a trade route, such as a navigable waterway, opened up opportunities for making good profits, which is what a number of settlers in the Arkansas territory did. One of the earliest historic era documentations of salt production in the territory was said to be Hernando DeSoto, during his stop in the winter of to make salt. 8 In 1813 John Hemphill started a salt work outside of Arkadelphia near both the Hardman site and the supposed site of DeSoto s stay. 9 Furthermore, this salt producing region is historically important due to its relationship with the Confederate Army during the Civil War. Prior to the Civil War, The majority of salt used in the south was imported from American salt works such as New York State s Onondaga County and the Kanawha works in (West) Virginia, or from foreign sources like Liverpool, England or one of France s many salt producers. 10 Americans experienced war time shortages of salt previously during the

6 Fields 4 Revolutionary War and knew of the importance of salt production in war time. 11 Therefore, when the Confederate States ceded for the United States, the Union responded with a naval blockade preventing the importation of foreign weapons and salt at New Orleans. The Confederacy had to develop new sources of salt, including one of its by-products saltpeter for use in black powder. This led the Confederacy to exempt salt workers from the draft. 12 Confederate Officer Captain J. M. King and M. S. Carpenter, a local, were sent to Arkadelphia to construct salt works to provide the Army with salt. 13 After the end of the war and the resumption of the regular salt trade, the Arkansas works closed down as they could not compete with the imported salt. 14 Although used often over the years for salt production, this area is not historically the most productive salt work in the territory. That distinction belongs to Lovely s Lick. Although the actual site of the salt works became part of Oklahoma when Arkansas gained its statehood, Lovely s Lick is an example of the importance of salt in politics of the territorial era. The area within which the salt work was located was named after William L. Lovely. Lovely was sent as in Indian agent in 1816 to attempt to secure the land from the Osage, who agreed to cede it to the United States Government as part of a treaty between the Osage, Cherokee, and the United States. The treaty was never made official, but the United State s desire for the salt producing land had not disappeared. In 1818 most of the land encompassed in Lovely s treaty was purchased from the Osage. This land, however, did not include the salt producing land, which was under the control of the Cherokee. In 1820 the Cherokee chiefs had authorized salt production at the springs for the Cherokee and to sell to the rest of the Arkansas Territory. 15 Shortly thereafter, Cherokee Agent Ruben Lewis complained that those salines are important to the territory as well as to the Cherokees, and the Cherokees have not relinquished to

7 Fields 5 the United States any equivalent for them, it would seem reasonable that they should be so disposed of as to secures to the territory, as well as to the Cherokees that necessary article at a fair price. 16 Part of Lewis s agitation about the salt appears to be the looming possibility that if the Cherokee did not sell salt to the settlers for a low price, they would have to purchase salt shipped up from New Orleans or down from Ohio. 17 This would cause the salt to be taxed at three to five dollars, not to mention a shipping cost of twenty-five to thirty dollars for each barrel. 18 Following Lewis s complaint, those salt-workers authorized by the Cherokee were forced from the salt works by persons pretending to have governmental authority. 19 In fact, this person was likely Major William Bradford, commander of Fort Smith. Bradford reportedly replaced the Cherokee s salt workers with two men known as Bean and Sanders. Bean and Sanders reportedly made salt in the area in 1915, prior to Cherokee possession of the land. 20 The stated purpose of this capture of salt rich territory was to produce salt for the garrison at the fort. The Cherokee appealed to the President of the United Sates about this theft and sought the return of their property, but they were denied. 21 This is an example of how governments viewed important natural resources like salt. Governments not only taxed salt but they often claimed ownership of salt springs and other types of salt works, thus leasing them to operators. This practice has been documented as early as the twelfth century B.C.E during the Shang Dynasty in China. 22 France, Spain, and England all attempted to establish some sort of salt monopoly. In France, the crown owned many of country s salt works. Additionally there was a tax on salt known as the Gabelle, the revenue from which was used as the major source of funding for the country. By 1660 the tax required all citizens to purchase a certain amount of government salt to insure that the tax earned enough revenue. 23 When Spanish Conquistadors came to the Americas the took over the brine springs and declared

8 Fields 6 them property of their king. 24 The English, while allowing salt production in their colonies, closed down the salt works in Orissa, India because the salt produced there was more affordable than the salt produced and shipped from Liverpool, England, thus cutting into the mother country s profits. 25 Therefore it should come as no surprise to any student of history on the subject of salt, that salt springs in Arkansas were declared to be federal property. When Arkansas became a state in 1836, United States Congress granted the springs and their surrounding land to the state. The action allowed the state to lease land around the springs for the purpose of salt production for a period of less than ten years, unless otherwise approved by the United States Congress. 26 As one would logically suppose, Saline County was named so because of the salt production in the area. According to the Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture, the county was named for the salt works that were established in the area during the county s early years one such being the salt works of Allen M. Oakley established in Under the 1836 law, William E. Woodruff established a rival salt works in Saline County. Woodruff is already a well-known figure of Arkansas history as founder of the Gazette, Arkansas s first newspaper which ran until 1991 when it joined with the rival Democrat and continues to run today under the name Arkansas Democrat Gazette. 28 Woodruff was a significant figure in the area s early settlement and owned a large portion of land east of downtown Little Rock where his home still stands. It is not surprising that Woodruff had his hand in the lucrative exploitation of the state s salt resources as he often had a hand in key affairs, like the steamboat trade on the Arkansas River. The information contained in the encyclopedia entry appears to originate in Dallas Tabor Herndon s Centennial History of Arkansas. The information is often re-phrased, but never contains more details. 29 Unfortunately, there appears to be no further documentation of the Saline County works.

9 Fields 7 So why is there not more taught about historic salt production in Arkansas? Firstly, the best documented example of territorial salt production is now part of the state of Oklahoma. Secondly, documents of other Arkansas salt works are apparently limited to the small collections of the Arkansas History Commission and an incomplete listing of springs in Arkansas at the Arkansas Geologic Survey that contains the location of some state salt springs in Sevier County. At the commission, there is a twenty-five item file on the state s leasing of springs. In another collection there is an 1817 contract from two individuals for the lease of a salt spring. Unfortunately in the case of the Saline County salt works, none of these documentary resources pertains to Oakley s salt works for which the county was named. Likewise, reports show that surveys by the Arkansas Archaeological program have yet to occur in areas that might contain the salt works. Therefore, it is necessary to undertake in-depth archaeological and historical research to discover the location of these salt works and details about the specific manufacturing processes that they utilized. Plan of Action Such research requires funding and interpretation of the findings to the public require additional funds. Furthermore, completion of this process requires the cooperation of many different organizations. Therefore this project, hereafter known as the Arkansas Salt Works Project (ASWP), will work in partnership with the Henderson State University (HSU) branch of the Arkansas Archaeological Survey (AAS), the Arkansas Historic Preservation Program (AHPP), the Arkansas Humanities Council (AHC), and the Department of Arkansas Heritage (DAH), as well as a number of local sponsors. The following plan of action is a preliminary five year plan designed to get basic information on the historic Arkansas salt industry to the public and fund archaeological research to discover the location of the Saline County works which have the least documentation of the known works.

10 Fields 8 Years 1-2 First, the Arkansas Salt Works Project requires the incorporation of the project as a non-profit 501 (c) (3), to begin rising money to start part one of the project. Part one involves consultation with the Henderson branch of the AAS, to establish the viability of the project as a Sponsored Research Program. This will require documentary research and reviews of the archaeological literature to narrow an area of possible study through survey work. According to the literature on other archaeological research of salt works, different ethnographic processes leave different archaeological evidence behind. In Belize, costal salt works are identified by the remains of ceramics produced in a standardized size, which apparently contained saltwater for boiling and then were broken open to reveal salt cakes. 30 This process is similar to the process used in Breton circa 600B.C.E and by the Romans in 46 C.E. 31 In addition to this style of salt manufacture is the historic era method used around lake Cuitzeo, Mexico. Here, salt water was concentrated by sprinkling it onto salt rich earth. This earth was then leached with more water. The left over dirt from this process resulted in tale-tell manmade earthen mounds indicating a salt work site. The salt water from the dirt was collected in hollowed tree trunks to evaporate in the sun. 32 Another solar evaporation method in North America was the use of wooden vats with rolling wooden roofs that covered the vats in the case of rain. 33 In both of these cases, the wood contains such a high concentration of salt that it can be preserved, as can hollow trees used to pipe saltwater from springs to the processing locations. 34 Additionally, the walls of ditches and canals that carry saltwater can fossilize, due to the solidification of the mineral deposits in the water. 35 However, since records of salt production in in Arkansas generally show that processing of salt was done through concentration in a series of iron boiling vats, such as the one located on HSU s campus, it is likely that this process was the most common in the state and evidence of these vats should be looked for. 36

11 Fields 9 Years 2-4 After an area for survey has been agreed upon, the second part of the Arkansas Salt Works Project plan can proceed. This involves application to the Arkansas Humanities Council for a $5,000 research grant to fund the archaeological survey work, as this project fulfills the Council s requirements of being a non-profit group researching a topic of Arkansas history with a value to audiences both academic and not. While there is no actual monetary limitation on the Grant funds requested, this amount seems justifiable. If through partnership with the AAS it is determined that more funds are needed for the survey work, the ASWP will adjust the request. After three years of survey and excavation work the third part of the plan will proceed. Year 5 The third part of the plan focuses on interpretation of findings to the public. The ASWP will apply for a $5,000 grant from the Department of Arkansas Heritage to create a traveling exhibit on the Arkansas salt industry for Arkansas Heritage Month. In addition to the exhibit, lesson plans on historic era salt works will be added to the Butler Center for Arkansas Studies Lesson Plans. These plans will focus on ninth through twelfth grade students, essentially picking up where the Salt of the Earth: A Caddo Industry in Arkansas left off. In addition to the history of the salt industry in Arkansas, these interpretive materials will offer a venue for the importance of science in the understanding of salt, as well as the impact of salt on global trade and politics. A general mock up of the lesson plans and the exhibit follow. However, given impossibility of knowing what might be uncovered in the archaeological research, these mock-ups represent what is already known. Therefore, they are subject to change in support of actual findings. Lesson Plan In this lesson students will learn about the salt industry in Arkansas. This comprises of learning how stratigraphic layers form, including the salt deposits formed and how archaeologists

12 Fields 10 use stratigraphic layers to inform the time frame of deposits in their research. Students will also explore the chemical makeup of salt and its many uses both in the preservation of food and in industrial applications. Furthermore, students will learn the value of the salt trade and the political importance that access to adequate salt reserves has played in local history. These lesson plans, as discussed earlier, are designed for students in ninth through twelfth grades to pick up where the Caddo salt work plans end. Materials to be used in this lesson include a map of the natural divisions of Arkansas, a map of the stratigraphic layers of Arkansas, a sitemap of the Hardman and Saline County archaeological sites, photos of artifacts, and a diagram of the chemical makeup of salt. Since this lesson plan focuses on the higher grades, they are designed to meet Arkansas Curriculum Frameworks for Arkansas history and chemistry. Content frameworks included fulfilling the geography standards. These standards require that students understand the geographical regions of Arkansas. In this lesson plan geographic understanding will be reached through discussion of pre-historic stratigraphic layers, such as the Louann Salt layer, and how plate tectonics and erosion developed the six geographical land regions in Arkansas.. The lesson will further discuss the uses of major rivers for trade, including pre-historic and historic salt trade. The origins of place names like Saline County and Mineral Springs will be explored, as will the importance of the states abundant natural resources on economics. This includes the state s role as the country s only industrial producer of Bromine. 37 In addition to the geography standards, this lesson plan will address the pre-territorial standards for investigation of Arkansas s Indian tribes, why they were successful in Arkansas, and what type of food they ate. 38 Furthermore, this lesson plan allows students to Investigate the decline and removal of American Indian tribes in Arkansas through discussion of Lovely s

13 Fields 11 Lick. 39 Likewise discussion of the Confederacy and its weaknesses in the exploration of the Arkadelphia salt works fulfills the standards on Civil War era Arkansas history. 40 Moreover students will explore the chemistry of acids, bases, and salts to understand the different industrial uses for salt products. This will include learning the atomic structures of the elements to visually depict how acids and bases combine to form salts. 41 It is anticipated that this lesson plan will cover three, ninety-minute class periods. Day one will cover an introduction to salt by involving the students in a discussion of what salt is, what early humans used it for, and what it is used for today. The rest of the class should focus on the chemical makeup of salts as being the combination of an acid and a base to form a stable compound. Teachers should diagram the atoms of elements that join to become salt and discuss the different characteristics of salt compounds other than Sodium Chloride. The second day should cover where salt is found naturally and how humanity acquires it. This will require discussion of geology, such as the opening of the Gulf of Mexico and the opening of the Mississippi Embayment and how this resulted in the pre-historic depositing of salt. Also, the development of brine springs through aquifers and salt domes due to pressure in the earth s crust should be discussed. The third day should begin with a review of stratigraphic layers followed by a discussion of the Hardman site. Teachers should show students the findings of the archaeologists and uses deductive reasoning to hypothesize about what these findings mean. Then review archaeologist s conclusions about the site. Teachers will then discuss historic era salt works in Arkansas focusing on their political impact through relationships with Native Americans and on the Confederacy s need of salt during the Civil War. Teachers should also focus on method of salt production and

14 Fields 12 have students hypothesize about what type of archaeological evidence and historical evidence these salt works would leave behind. For extensions on the lesson or as part of evaluations on understanding students should read Trading Tastes: Commodity and Cultural Exchange to 1750 and report on the trade of salt across the world also led to exchange of cultural ideas. 42 Students could also read Salt: A World History and report on the history of a salt preserved food product that is still eaten today, like hams or pickled cucumbers. 43 Students could also research and report on modern industrial uses for salts, such as natron salts and the Arkansas bromine industry. This lesson ties science, history, archaeology, and politics in a real world scenario that relates to an everyday item with which all students will have familiarity. With the small grain of salt, a big story can be told and broad and relatable education imparted. Sample Exhibit Panels In addition to the lesson plans there will be an exhibit on the salt industry in Arkansas. It will consist of five interpretive panels and two cases of archaeological artifacts. The first panel will discuss the chemical makeup of salt and how it was deposited in Arkansas. The second panel will discuss Archaeological methods for research. The third and fourth panels will interpret the findings on the Caddoan and historic era salt works in Arkansas. The final panel explores the end of salt production in Arkansas and the rise of the bromine industry. Proposed panels with completed research follow. These mockup panels will be approximately four feet wide by six feet tall. They will contain twenty point font or higher and meet American s with Disabilities Act suggestions for text height from the floor. The proposed panels not shown will include historic photos of salt kettles, scans of historic documents discussing the salt industry, and photos of archaeological research in process so that visitors can grasp the methodology used to research the past.

15 Fields 13 Pickled Pig s Feet! The history of Salt in the Natural State. You may be wondering what pickled pig s feet have to do with Arkansas history, but they have more in common than on would suspect. That is, they share a history of salt. Early Arkansans like the Caddo, Osage, Quapaw and even the settlers of the nineteenth century did not have refrigeration to preserve their food. Instead, their food was preserved by salt, through pickling or salt curing. How did the salt get here? During the Jurassic Period ( million years ago) the earth s crust shifted, opening the Gulf of Mexico to the Atlantic Ocean, The Gulf collected the ocean s salty water in its shallow basin,. Sunlight caused evaporation of the water from the Gulf, concentrating the salt in the water. Eventually the alt started to crystallize and was deposited on the ground, So what is Salt? Regular table salt is a stable compound made when the element Sodium (Na) joins with the element Chlorine (Cl). These elements are unstable individually due to their uneven number of electrons. So to stabilize, Sodium shares an electron with Chlorine giving them both an even pair this can be seen above. Later, in the Cretaceous Period ( million years ago), the Ouachita and Appalachian Mountains broke apart and the Mississippi river started to form. But because the water was so high in the Gulf, the Mississippi Valley flooded with salt water and became a bay in the Gulf. This is called the Mississippi Embayment and can be seen In the illustration above. As the Sodium and Chlorine start sharing electrons, they start to form a lattice structure as seen above. This structure forms a salt crystal like those seen on the left that is ground into smaller crystals and served with our food today The salt water from the Mississippi Embayment also left a layer of salt on the ground. These different layers are called striations and can be made out of any substance deposited on the ground. This results in a buildup of layers of different materials on the earth s crust. An example of striation is seen in the illustration above.

16 Fields 14 Why Is Striation Important? How Archeologists Research the Past Striation can occur over long periods like the Jurassic and the Cretaceous, but it also occurs over shorter periods. Archeologists use these shorter striations to date when objects were left on the ground. Furthermore, when someone or something like a rabbit digs a hole, the archeologist can see that in the layers. Archaeologists also use grids to document where each artifact (things found in each striation) was located. This allows the archaeologist to map where objects are found and determine where different rooms of houses were or where pottery was made. Think about it: If you were an archeologist in the future researching houses of today and you found a large number of pots and pans in one room, and a number of toothbrushes and a big tub in another, what might the rooms be? Do you see the different layers in the earth? What makes them different? Archeologists do not dig holes just anywhere. First, they form a hypothesis. Then they research a topic. They look for evidence through ground penetrating radar, satellite, and through surveys of potential sites. When the Archaeologist is convinced that they have a spot that will support their hypothesis, then they start digging small test pits and carefully record everything they find. An example of ground penetrating radar, showing the foundations of a historic building in Fayetteville, Arkansas, is to the upper left. But what does archeology have to do with salt? Archaeologists research was conducted on Arkansas salt works. Their findings help interpret how salt was produced in the past. The photograph on the left is a ceramic pan that was discovered in a single striation in an area where many similar ceramic pans were found. These pans had traces of salt on them and are similar to many other pans found in salt rich areas in the country. Therefore, the archaeologists interpreted their find as a Caddoan salt work. Archaeological research was also done on the salt works of Arkansas s settlers, which had little historic documentation to tell researchers what the industry was like.

17 Fields 15 Salt Industry in Arkansas Today Today table salt (NaCl) is so cheaply produced that it is no longer profitable to produce in Arkansas. However, the state s salt deposits are home to something else Bromine, which is being produced at the facility in this picture Bromine (Br) is a liquid element that is found in Earth s ocean water, It was deposited when with the salt during the Jurassic Period. This vial contains Bromine in its natural state a liquid. What is Bromine used for? According to the Arkansas Geological Survey, the majority of Bromine produced in the world is consumed in the manufacture of flame retardants. Bromine is also used in fungicides and pesticides. It s probably in the car you drove in today as an anti-knock agent for leaded gasoline engines. Another common use of Bromine is in the production of purple clothing dye. Other uses include disinfectants, photographic preparations and chemicals, solvents, water-treatment compounds, insulating foam, hair-care products, and oil well drilling fluids. Another salt produced in Arkansas is Calcium Chloride (CaCl 2 ) Calcium Chloride is often used as a road deicer and in hand warmers during the winter. In the summer months, it is used to maintain the concrete in swimming pools. Pictured here is a pile of salt mixture including Calcium Chloride to be used as road deicer. If left open to the air, liquid Bromine will quickly evaporate and can be dangerous to humans. However, Bromine also forms a salt with Sodium (Na) to creating Sodium Bromide. This salt is used as a disinfectant in swimming pools and hot tubs and generally produced in tablets, like those shown here.

18 Fields 16 1 Marvin D. Jeter and Ann M. Early, Prehistory of the Saline River Drainage Basin, in Arkansas Archaeology: Essays in Honor of Dan and Phyllis Morse, Ed. by Robert C. Mainfort and Marvin D. Jeter (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1999), Jennifer Lytwyn s lecture notes on Historical Geology Chapter Krista Mondelli, Salt Reconstruction and Study of Depositional History, Upper Jurassic, East Texas Basin, Master s thesis (Huston: University of Huston, 2011), Roy B. Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, The Mississippi's Curious Origins, Scientific American, 296 no. 1 (January 2007), Arkansas Geologic Survey, Geology: Geologic History /gen_geologic_history.htm 6 Sherry J. Tipps, Salt of the Earth: A Caddo Industry in Arkansas, rev. ed. (Little Rock: Butler Center for Arkansas Studies, 2008) 7 Ibid. 8 F. P. Rose, Primitive Salt Works, The Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 11 no. 4 (Winter, 1952) Ibid. 10 Mark Kurlansky, Salt: A World History, (New York: Penguin Books, 2003), 257-8, 260, Ibid., Ibid., H. B. McKenzie, Confederate Manufactures in Southwest Arkansas, in Arkansas Historical Association Publications, ed. John Hugh Reynolds. Vol. 2. (Fayetteville: Democrat Printing and Lithography, 1908), Ibid. 15 Daniel F. Littlefield Jr. The Salt Industry in Arkansas Territory, The Arkansas Historical Quarterly 32 no. 4 (Winter, 1973) 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid. 316 and Rose Littlefield Ibid. 317

19 Fields Ibid Erik Gilbert and Jonathan Reynolds, Trading Tastes: Commodity and Cultural Exchange to 1750, (Upper saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson, 2006), Kurlansky, Ibid., Ibid., Virginia Buxton, Salt Springs and Salt Works in Arkansas, The Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 16 no. 4 (Winter, 1957), Eddie G. Landreth, Saline County in The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture. Online at: 28 Rex Nelson, Arkansas Democrat-Gazette, in The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture. Online at: ), Dallas Tabor Herndon, Centennial History of Arkansas, Vol 1, (Easley, S.C. : Southern Historical Press, 30 Heather McKillop and Jeremy A. Sabloff, Finds in Belize Document Late Classic Maya Salt Making and Canoe Transport, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102 no. 15 (April 2005), Kurlansky Eduardo Williams, The Ethnoarchaeology of Salt Production at Lake Cuitzeo, Michoacán, Mexico, Latin American Antiquity 10 no. 4 (December 1999), , Kurlansky 238, Littlefield. See photos on unnumbered pages, Kurlansky 256, and Williams, Williams, Littlefield. See photos on unnumbered pages 37 Arkansas Department of Education, Arkansas History Grades 9-12 Social Studies Curriculum Framework Revision G.1.AH Ibid. EA.2.AH Ibid. TPS.4.AH Ibid. SR.5.AH

20 Fields Arkansas Department of Education, Chemistry Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Framework Revision AB.20.C.1, AB.21.C.1 and 3 42 Kurlansky 43 Gilbert and Reynolds

21 Fields 19 Bibliography Arkansas Department of Education. Arkansas History Grades 9-12 Social Studies Curriculum Framework. Revision Chemistry Grades 9-12 Science Curriculum Framework. Revision Arkansas Geologic Survey. Geology: Geologic History. /gen_geologic_history.htm Buxton, Virginia. Salt Springs and Salt Works in Arkansas. The Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 16 no. 4 (Winter, 1957) Gilbert, Erik and Jonathan Reynolds. Trading Tastes: Commodity and Cultural Exchange to Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson, 2006 Herndon, Dallas Tabor. Centennial History of Arkansas. Vol 1, Easley, S.C.: Southern Historical Press, 1922 Jeter, Marvin D. and Ann M. Early. Prehistory of the Saline River Drainage Basin, in Arkansas Archaeology: Essays in Honor of Dan and Phyllis Morse. ed. by Robert C. Mainfort and Marvin D. Jeter. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, Kurlansky, Mark. Salt: A World History. New York: Penguin Books, Landreth, Eddie G. Saline County. in The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture. Online at: Littlefield, Daniel F. Jr. The Salt Industry in Arkansas Territory, The Arkansas Historical Quarterly 32 no. 4 (Winter, 1973) Lytwyn, Jennifer. Lecture notes on Historical Geology Chapter McKenzie, H. B. Confederate Manufactures in Southwest Arkansas. in Arkansas Historical Association Publications. ed. John Hugh Reynolds. Vol. 2. Fayetteville: Democrat Printing and Lithography, 1908 McKillop, Heather and Jeremy A. Sabloff. Finds in Belize Document Late Classic Maya Salt Making and Canoe Transport. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102 no. 15 (April 2005) Mondelli, Krista. Salt Reconstruction and Study of Depositional History, Upper Jurassic, East Texas Basin. Master s thesis. Huston: University of Huston, 2011

22 Fields 20 Nelson, Rex. Arkansas Democrat-Gazette. in The Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture. Online at: Rose, F. P. Primitive Salt Works. The Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 11 no. 4 (Winter, 1952) Tipps, Sherry J. Salt of the Earth: A Caddo Industry in Arkansas. rev. ed. Little Rock: Butler Center for Arkansas Studies, 2008 Van Arsdale, Roy B. and Randel T. Cox. The Mississippi's Curious Origins. Scientific American, 296 no. 1 (January 2007) Williams, Eduardo The Ethnoarchaeology of Salt Production at Lake Cuitzeo, Michoacán, Mexico. Latin American Antiquity 10 no. 4 (December 1999)

23 Fields 21 Appendices Appendix A: Salt of the Earth: A Caddo Industry in Arkansas

24 Fields 22 Appendix B: Currently Available Materials for use with the Historic Arkansas Salt Works Lesson Plan