Generic Pest Risk Analysis Import of Transgenic Soybean

Transcription

1 Generic Pest Risk Analysis Import of Transgenic Soybean Editors V Celia Chalam Shashi Bhalla Kavita Gupta Baleshwar Singh Z Khan SC Dubey ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources New Delhi , India

2 Citation: V Celia Chalam, Shashi Bhalla, Kavita Gupta, Baleshwar Singh, Z Khan and SC Dubey (Eds) 2016 Generic Pest Risk Analysis: Import of Transgenic Soybean. ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, India, 146 p. Published in 2016 All Rights Reserved ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources New Delhi , India Published by: The Director ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources New Delhi , India. director.nbpgr@icar.gov.in Website:

3 Contents Introduction 1 Table 1. Potential Quarantine Pests of Soybean for India 3 References 126 Glossary 143 Acronyms and Abbreviations 144 Other Useful References 146

4 Introduction Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] is the major oilseed crop in the world accounting for nearly 50% of total oilseeds acreage as well as production. It provides approximately 60% of vegetable protein and 30% of oil in the world. Soybean ranks second in vegetable oil economy of India after groundnut. Soybean is primarily utilized as a source of protein and oil. Soybean seed contains 20% oil and 40-42% quality protein. Soybean is grown in m ha in the world to produce m tonnes in USA tops the list in soybean acreage and production. The other major soybean-producing countries are Brazil, China, Argentina, Indonesia, Canada, Paraguay and Italy. India with 8.88 m ha of soybean-growing area and m tonnes production ranks fifth in the world during It contributes 30-37% to India s oilseeds production (Anonymous, 2009). Given its nutritional and health benefits, soybean has been gaining more prominence the world over more so, with the advent of transgenic crops. Transgenic soybean is being grown in 11 countries viz., USA, Brazil, Argentina, Canada, Paraguay, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Mexico, Chile and Costa Rica (James, 2011). The crop is susceptible to infection by several pests, which substantially reduce yield and quality. The ICAR-National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) is the nodal agency in India for management of plant genetic resources and quarantine processing of imported germplasm including that of transgenics for research purposes. Soybean germplasm including transgenics in the form of true seed is imported into India every year for crop improvement programmes. The seed not only serves as a source of valuable genes useful for crop improvement, but also as a reservoir of many seed-borne and seed-transmitted pests. Therefore, the exchange of germplasm for crop improvement programmes has the inherent risk of introducing new pests or their virulent races/ biotypes into the country. Globally there are several instances of plant disease epidemics due to movement of infected seed/other planting material. There are new records that suggest that soybean pests are moving from one area/region to another. Peronospora manshurica was reported from France by Signoret et al. (1975) and from Iran by Zad (1979). Soybean rust, Phakopsora pachyrhizi was first reported from Argentina in Like-wise, there are several new regional records of soybean pests in different parts of USA, viz. Fusarium solani f.sp. glycines (sudden death syndrome) in Minnesota, Bean pod mottle virus in soybean in Alabama, Soybean dwarf virus a n d Cercospora sojina (frogeye leaf spot) in Wisconsin. Records from India include P. pachyrhizi in Rajasthan and Chhattisgarh. At ICAR-NBPGR, New Delhi, adopting a workable strategy several quarantine pests viz., Peronospora manshurica, Bean mild mosaic virus, Bean pod mottle virus, Cherry leaf roll virus, Cowpea severe mosaic virus, Pea enation mosaic virus, Peanut stunt virus, Raspberry ring spot virus and Tomato ring spot virus have been intercepted in soybean germplasm imported from many countries. In addition, interceptions have also been made of viruses like Arabis mosaic virus, Grapevine fan leaf virus, Tomato black ring virus not reported from India on soybean (Khetarpal et al., 2006; Chalam and Khetarpal, 2008; Chalam et al., 2008; Chalam et al., 2014; Chalam 2016; Parakh et al., 2005, 2008). P. manshurica, a quarantine pest was intercepted in soybean including transgenic soybean from many countries (Agarwal et al., 2006a, 2006b; Agarwal and Singh, 1998; Singh et al., 2002, 2003; Khetarpal et al.,

5 2005). It is therefore, mandatory to pay attention to the prescribed regulations to avoid the introduction of these quarantine pests into the country. The appropriate phytosanitary measures should be adopted accordingly to facilitate safe import of planting material. The Agreement on Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, under WTO, requires member countries to have uniform phytosanitary standards. The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) has developed International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) and so far 37 standards have been brought out. Of these, the guidelines for the pest risk analysis (PRA) are given in ISPM-2, ISPM-11 and ISPM-21. The preparation of PRA is divided into three stages viz., initiation, risk assessment and risk management. A PRA should be fully documented in the event of a review or dispute. In fact, the first step is very crucial to start a PRA and requires both a list of pests reported to occur and a list of those not known to occur in the country. ICAR-NBPGR has been empowered under the Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order 2003 of the Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1914 to undertake quarantine of germplasm including transgenics under exchange. The Division of Plant Quarantine in the ICAR-NBPGR has brought out publications on the potential quarantine pests (PQPs) for India in cereals (Dev et al., 2005), grain legumes (Chalam et al., 2012) and edible oilseeds (Gupta et al., 2013). In this context an attempt has been made here to prepare a document on the PQPs of soybean. Various parameters taken into account for compilation are: pests, their synonym(s), disease caused or the common name, pathway of introduction, host range, geographical distribution, economic impact and phytosanitary risk involved. The information has been collected from various sources including the Crop Protection Compendium (CAB International, 2007). PQPs were short-listed based on one or more of the facts that these pests are: (i) not reported from India, (ii) having limited distribution, (iii) present in India on other crops but not on grain legumes and (iv) having physiological races. This data has been linked with the pests listed under the Schedule VI of Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, The Schedule VI of the Order deals with plant/ plant material permitted for import with additional declarations and special conditions. Ninety six pests (34 insects, three mites, four nematodes, 18 fungi, six bacteria, 14 viruses and 17 weed species) are listed as the PQPs for India in soybean (Table 1). Out of these, three viruses are not known to infect legumes including soybean in India and a bacteria is known to have races world-wide. Ninety two pests (34 insects, three mites, four nematodes, 18 fungi, five bacteria, 11 viruses and 17 weed species) are not reported to occur in India. Once introduced and established, these pests or their virulent races/ strains/ biotypes can cause severe damage to agriculture. Compilation of data on pests of quarantine significance, their global distribution and other aspects related to biology, survival and spread of these pests are essential components of risk analysis to meet international regulations. However, it may be noted that, this compilation is based on published literature and the non-availability of published literature should not be interpreted as absence of a pest in a country. This publication would, thus, facilitate smooth functioning of quarantine, benefit scientists while issuing import permit stating additional declarations required for import in addition to supplementing information for analyzing pest risk. Therefore, it is hoped that this publication would serve as a ready reckoner for the benefit of researchers, quarantine officials, students, seed certification agencies and others entrusted with the task of safe trade and exchange of germplasm of soybean including transgenics. 2

6 Table 1. Potential Quarantine Pests of Soybean for India S. No. Scientific Name Synonyms Common Name Pathway of Introduction Host Range Geographical Distribution Remarks Insects and Mites 1. *Acalymma vittatum (Fabricius) Synonyms Acalymma vittata (Fabricius), Cistela melanocephala Fabricius, Crioceris vittata Fabricius, Cryptocephalus (Cistela) americanus Gmelin, C. (Crioceris) stolatus Gmelin, Diabrotica melanocephala (Fabricius), D. vittatae (Fabricius), Galleruca (Diabrotica) americana (Gmelin), G. cucumeris Striped cucumber beetle Seed, as contaminant Brassica oleracea, Citrullus lanatus, Cucumis melo, C. sativus, Cucurbita spp., C. argyrosperma, C. maxima, C. moschata, C. pepo, Glycine max, Helianthus annuus, Ligustrum spp., Solidago spp., Taraxacum officinale, Urtica dioica, Zea mays Canada, Mexico, USA Oviposition occurs in soil near base of plant. Larvae feed on the roots and stem (York, 1992). Vector of Erwinia tracheiphila causing bacterial wilt of cucurbits. It also transmits Cucumber mosaic virus and Cowpea mosaic virus (CAB International, 2007). 3

7 Melsheimer, G. pallipes Oliver, G. vittata (Fabricius) Order: Coleoptera Family: Chrysomelidae 2. *Acrosternum hilare (Say) Synonyms Nezara hilaris (Uhler), N. (Acrosternum) sarpinus Stål, Pentatoma hilaris Say, Rhaphigaster sarpinus Dallas Order: Hemiptera Family: Pentatomidae Green stink bug Seed, as contaminant Abelmoschus esculentus, Acer negundo, Althaea sp., Asparagus officinalis, Brassica oleracea var. capitata, Catalpa sp., Cephalanthus occidentalis, Citrus inensis, Cornus sp., Coronilla varia, Corylus avellana, Crataegus sp., Datura stramonium, Desmodium sp., Fragaria ananassa, Fraxinus sp., Glycine max, Gossypium sp., Ilex aquifolium, Juglans Canada, Pakistan, USA Bugs aestivate as adults in plant debris and soil. Affects the yield, pod filling, weight, viability and vigour of soybean seeds (Russin et al., 1987). Damage to soybean also includes loss of value to seed, oil and meal. 4

8 nigra, Lonicera sp., Malus domestica, Medicago sativa, Mimosa sp., Morus alba, Phaseolus spp., P. lunatus, Pisum sativum, Platycladus orientalis, Prunus armeniaca, P. avium, P. domestica, P. persica, P. serotina, Pyrus communis, Quercus sp., Rhamnus cathartica, Rhus sp., Robinia pseudoacacia, Rubus idaeus, Sambucus sp., Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. melongena, Solidago sp., Syringa vulgaris, Tilia americana var. heterophylla, 5

9 Trifolium sp., Ulmus rubra, Vigna unguiculata, Vitis vinifera, Wisteria sp., Zea mays 3. *Anticarsia gemmatalis Hübner Synonyms Azazia monstratura, Hypernaria anisospila Walker, H. detrahens Walker, H. gemina (Maassen), H. leucospila Walker, Plaxia spiloleuca Walker, P. subducta Walker, Remigia subsignata Walker, Thermesia costalis Walker, T. gemmatalis (Hübner), T. infumata Felder & Rogenhofer T. monstratura Walker Order: Lepidoptera Soybean caterpillar Seed, as contaminant Arachis hypogaea, Cajanus cajan, Canavalia gladiata, Glycine max, Indigofera hirsute, Lablab purpureus, Medicago sativa, M. lupulina, Mucuna pruriens, Macroptilium lathyroides, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pueraria radiata var. lobata, Sesbania exaltata, Trifolium repens, Vicia angustifolia, Vigna umbellata, V. unguiculata Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, Honduras, Mexico, Puerto Rico, USA A serious pest of beans in many parts of Central and South America and the Caribbean. In southeastern USA, it is a very serious pest of soybean. Pupae are found on and below the soil surface (Lee and Johnson, 1990). Estimated annual losses and costs of its control were ~ $60 million in Louisiana and Georgia in 1982 (Suber et al., 1984). Its cost of control in Florida reaches $1.2 6

10 Family: Noctuidae million annually (CAB International, 2007). 4. *Cerotoma caminea Fabricius Synonym Cerotoma caminea Fabricius Order: Coleoptera Family: Chrysomelidae Bean leaf beetle, leaf beetle of bean Seed, as contaminant Avena sativa, Euonymus atropurpureus, Glycine max, Kummerowia striata, Medicago sativa, Melilotus officinalis, Phaseolus vulgaris, Trifolium pratense, T. repens, Triticum aestivum, Urtica dioica,vigna unguiculata, Wisteria floribunda, Zea mays USA Female lays eggs in the upper 4 cm soil near plant stems. There are one to three generations causing significant yield losses (Smelser and Pedigo, 1992). 7

11 5. *#Clavigralla tomentosicollis Stål Synonyms Acanthomia brevirostris Stål, A. tomentosicollis (Stål) Order: Hemiptera Family: Coreidae African pod bug, bean bug (Africa), spiny brown bug Seed Cajanus cajan, Cicer arietinum, Glycine max, Gossypium hirsutum, Lablab purpureus, Phaseolus vulgaris, Spinacia oleracea, Tephrosia spp., Vigna unguiculata Algeria, Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo Democratic Republic, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Ivory Coast, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zanzibar, Zimbabwe In Africa, ~50% damage of Phaseolus sp. seeds (Jones, 1953) and >50% of C. cajan seeds is reported (Materu, 1970). An infestation level of 40-60% may cause reduction in weight of pigeon pea and pea seeds by 40-60%. The number of seeds were reduced by 25-36%, and the seed quality by 94-98% (Hill and Waller, 1988). Major pest of grain legumes in Africa and could be of phytosanitary risk in Asia where grain legumes are also important. 8

12 6. *Crocidosema aporema (Walsingham) Synonyms Epinotia aporema (Walsingham), E. opposita Heinrich, Eucosma opposita (Heinrich), E. aporema Walsingham Order: Lepidoptera Family: Tortricidae Bud borer, budworm, bean shoot moth Seed or pods as contaminant Arachis hypogaea, Glycine max, Lotus spp., Lupinus spp., Medicago sativa, Melilotus spp., Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Vicia faba Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, Uruguay, USA The pupal stage occurs in the soil, or found webbed to pods. In soybean, plant height and insertion of lower pods are significantly reduced as a result of its attack on terminal buds. 7. *Diabrotica balteata Leconte Synonym Diabrotica sallei Baly Order: Coleoptera Family: Chrysomelidae Banded cucumber beetle, belted cucumber beetle, corn rootworm beetle Seed, as contaminant Arachis hypogaea, Amaranthus spp., Cucumis melo, C. sativus, Cucurbita sp., C. pepo, Glycine max, Ipomoea batatas, Manihot esculenta, Oryza sativa, Phaseolus lunatus, P. vulgaris, Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, Solanum tuberosum, Belize, Colombia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, USA, Venezuela Eggs are deposited in small clusters under the soil surface and hatch in 6-10 days depending on soil temperature and larvae feed exclusively on roots and pupate in top 20 cm soil. Multivoltine species with several overlapping generations per year 9

13 Sorghum bicolor, Triticum aestivum, Verbesina encelioides, Zea mays (Krysan, 1986). No diapause occurs and adults are found throughout the year. Vector of Bean mild mosaic virus, Cowpea chlorotic mottle virus, Cowpea mosaic virus and Cowpea severe mosaic virus. 8. *Diabrotica speciosa (Germar) Synonyms Diabrotica amabilis Baly, D. hexaspilota Baly, D. simoni Jacoby, D. simulans Baly, D. vigens Erichson, Galeruca speciosa Germar Order: Coleoptera Family: Chrysomelidae Chrysanth emum beetle, Cucurbit beetle, San Antonio beetle Seed, as contaminant Amaranthus hybridus subsp. quitensis, Arachis hypogaea, Beta vulgaris, Brassica spp., Capsicum spp., Citrus spp., Cucumis spp., Cucurbita maxima, C. pepo, Cynara cardunculus, Glycine max, Gossypium hirsutum, Helianthus annuus, Lactuca sativa, Lagenaria Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Paraguay, Panama, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela Eggs are laid in the soil, near a host plant. Number of overlapping generations depends on climatic conditions, being continuous in tropical areas while in Argentina, there are about three generations per year (USDA, 1957). It has been intercepted at ports of entry in the USA on 10

14 siceraria, Luffa aegyptiaca, Nicotiana tabacum, Oryza sativa, Phaseolus spp., P. vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Prunus persica, Sechium edule, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. tuberosum, Sorghum bicolor, Triticum spp., T. aestivum, Zea mays several occasions (USDA, 1957). It is an important pest throughout southern South America (except Chile), but, being highly polyphagous, qualitative reports of its impact on different crops vary in different regions. 9. *Diabrotica undecimpunctata Mannerheim Synonyms Chrysomela duodecimpunctata Fabricus, Crioceris sexpunctata Fabricius, Diabrotica Southern corn rootworm, spotted cucumber beetle, 12- spotted cucumber beetle, western spotted Seed, as contaminant Arachis hypogaea, Chenopodium quinoa, Citrullus lanatus, Cucumis melo, C. sativus, Cucurbita pepo, Glycine max, Ipomoea batatas, Phaseolus vulgaris, Zea mays Canada, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, Nicaragua, USA Eggs are laid in masses of 200 to 1200 in the soil depending on soil moisture and texture, >90% within 3 cm of host plant (Elsey, 1988). Vector of plant viruses viz., Bean mild mosaic virus, 11

15 duodecimpunctata Fabricus, D. soror LeConte, D. undecimpunctata subsp. howardi Barber Order: Coleoptera Family: Chrysomelidae cucumber beetle Cowpea mosaic virus, Southern bean mosaic virus and bacteria viz., Erwinia tracheiphila, Pseudomonas syringae pv. lachrymans and Pantoea stewartii (Howard et al., 1994; EPPO/ CAB International, 2007). A2 quarantine pest for EPPO and the related D. barberi is an A1 quarantine pest. 10. *Diabrotica virgifera virgifera LeConte Synonyms Diabrotic filicornis Horn, D. virgifera LeConte, D. virgifera var. filicornis Gillette, D. virgifera zea Colorado corn rootworm, western Colorado corn rootworm Seed, as contaminant Cucurbita spp., C. pepo, Glycine max, Helianthus annuus, Hordeum vulgare, Setaria, Tripsacum dactyloides, Triticum aestivum, T. spelta, Zea mays Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Costa Rica, Croatia, Czech Republic, France, Guatemala, Hungary, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Native of USA, recorded from Yugoslavia (erstwhile) in It has spread to Europe and is a major threat to maize (Gerginov and Tomov, 1995). Introduced into Serbia and is spreading in the 12

16 Order: Coleoptera Family: Chrysomelidae Slovakia Slovenia, Switzerland Ukraine, UK, USA lower Danube basin. Thus having a high profile as a quarantine pest. Univoltine species. Eggs are generally concentrated in the top cm soil, or deeper in dry soils. In North America, losses to the tune of US$1 billion are incurred annually in maize (Metcalf, 1986). Transmits Maize chlorotic mottle virus (Jensen, 1985). 11. *Dociostaurus maroccanus (Thunburg) Synonyms Baranov Mediterra nean locust, Moroccan locust Seed, as contaminant Avena spp., Beta vulgaris, Cannabis sativa, Capsicum annuum, Carduus spp., Carum carvi, Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Univoltine species and hibernates as a diapausing egg stage just under the soil 13

17 degenerates, Dociostaurus cruciatus (Charpentier), D. maroccanus, D. vastator (Fischer- Waldheim), Oedaleus infernalis pendulus (Steinmann, 1965), Stauronotus cruciatus (Charpentier), S. maroccanus (Thunberg), S. vastator (Fischer- Waldheim) Order: Orthoptera Family: Acrididae Cicer arietinum, Cucumis melo, C. sativus, Cucurbita spp., Elymus repens, Fragaria ananassa, Glycine max, Gossypium hirsutum, Helianthus annuus, Hordeum sp., H. vulgare, Humulus lupulus, Malus spp., Medicago spp., Nicotiana tabacum, Panicum miliaceum, Pyrus spp., Quercus spp., Rosa spp., Rubus idaeus, Secale cereale, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), Spinacia oleracea, Trifolium spp., Triticum spp., Vicia sativa, Vitis vinifera, Zea mays Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, France, Georgia, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Macedonia, Morocco, Romania, Russia, Spain, Syria, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan Uzbekistan (Grigorov, 1976). Periodically recorded in high densities, but outbreaks occurred at 10 year interval viz., 1919, 1929, and There were no locust plagues in Bulgaria from 1944 to 1990 and the Government called for suitable soil to be plugged with very intensive plant protection measures. Last outbreak of Moroccan locust was in 2000 and it is a real menace for farmers in that area (Andreev, 2002). 14

18 12. *Edessa meditabunda (Fabricius) Synonyms Aceratodes nuditabundus Stål, Cimex glaucescens Fabricius, C. meditabundus Fabricius, Edessa consentanea Walker, E. rugulosa Uhler Order: Hemiptera Family: Pentatomidae Green and brown stink bug Seed, as contaminant Abelmoschus esculentus, Cajanus cajan, Capsicum annuum, Citrus spp., Datura stramonium, Desmodium spp., Glycine max, Gossypium spp., Helianthus annuus, Linum usitatissimum, Lolium multiflorum ssp. gaudini, Lupinus albus, L. luteus, Manihot esculenta, Medicago sativa, Nicotiana tabacum, Phaseolus spp., Pisum sativum, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. melongena, S. tuberosum, Theobroma cacao, Vigna umbellata, Zea mays Antigua, Argentina, Amazonas, Barbuda, Barbados, Cuba, Colombia, Espirito Santo, French Guiana, Guyana, Goias, Grenada, Grenadines, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat, Minas Gerais, Paraguay, Suriname, Sao Paulo, Trinidad, Tobago, Uruguay Overwinters as adult under tree barks, bushes or litter, with one generation per year. In soybean, percentage infestation varied with the variety and affects the weight, oil, protein content and germination of the seeds (Link et al., 1973). In Brazil, it caused increase in number of pods falling prematurely and number of empty pods/ plant, reduced seed weight and decrease in number of beans/ pod (Corso et al., 1978). 15

19 13. *Elasmopalpus lignosellus (Zeller) Synonyms Dasypyga carbonella Hulst, Elasmopalpus anthracellus Ragonot, E. carbonella (Hulst), E. incautella (Zeller), E. major (Zeller), E. puer Dyar, E. tartarella (Zeller), Pempelia lignosella Zeller, Salebria lignosella Zeller Order: Lepidoptera Family: Pyralidae Lesser corn stalk borer, sugarcane jumping borer Seed, as contaminant Arachis hypogaea, Brassica rapa, Cajanus cajan, Cornus florida, Cyperus esculentus, Digitaria sanguinalis, Echinochloa crusgalli, Glycine max, Linum usitatissimum, Oryza sativa, Phaseolus vulgaris, Platanus occidentalis, Ragaria ananassa, Robinia pseudoacacia, Saccharum officinarum, Sorghum bicolor, S. halepense, S. sudanense, Taxodium distichum, Triticum spp., Vigna unguiculata, Zea mays Barbados, Bermuda, Costa Rica, Cuba, El Salvador Pupation occurs in soil. Feeding by one larva throughout its larval life on a plant reduced the dry weight of groundnut roots by 22%. Seed dry weight decreased by more than onethird for each larva completing its development on the plant (Mack et al., 1986). Causes indirect damage from fungal infections through damaged host plant tissue (Bowen and Mack, 1993). 16

20 14. * Ephestia kuehniella Zeller Synonym Anagasta kuehniella Zeller Order: Lepidoptera Family: Pyralidae Flour moth, Mediterra nean flour moth, mill moth Seed, containers, packing Arachis hypogaea, Avena sativa, Cannabis sativa, Capsicum spp., Ceratonia siliqua, Glycine max, Hordeum vulgare, Juglans spp., Oryza sativa, Phoenix dactylifera, Pisum sativum, Prunus amygdalus Sesamum spp., Solanum tuberosum, Sorghum bicolor, Theobroma cacao, Triticum spp., T. aestivum, Zea mays It is a cosmopolitan pest, being spread all over the world by international trade but yet not reported from India Occurs especially in warm, temperate areas, but is also common in cold, temperate areas and can occur in the tropics. Larval diapause influenced by the strain and nutrition as well as by temperature and photoperiod (Cole and Cox, 1981; Cox et al., 1984a, 1984b). Diapause increases the tolerance of larvae to fumigants at low temperature (Cox et al., 1984b). High temperature and darkness during larval development result in a high number of diapausing larvae (Cox et al., 1981). Diatomaceous earth is 17

21 effective for control of E. kuehniella in processed food (Trewin and Reichmuth, 1997; Nielsen, 1998). 15. * Gonocephalum macleayi (Blackburn) Synonym Dasus macleayi (Blackburn) Order: Coleoptera Family: Tenebrionidae Southern false wireworm Seed, as contaminant Cicer arietinum, Glycine max, Gossypium spp., Helianthus annuus, Sorghum almum, S. bicolor, Triticum spp., Zea mays Australia Adults and larvae attack seeds or seedlings of a wide variety of crops in eastern Australia (Robertson, 1993). Eggs are laid under weeds/ crop residues species. It is a univoltine, with overwintering adults/ 18

22 larvae. Larvae remain in the soil for months (Allsopp, 1980). Adults and larvae congregate under crop residues (Robertson and Simpson, 1988). 16. *Helicoverpa punctigera (Wallengren) Synonyms Chloridea marmada Swinhoe, Heliothis punctigera Wallengren, Order: Lepidoptera Family: Noctuidae Budworm, climbing cutworm, native budworm, native cutworm Seeds, pods, soil Arachis hypogaea, Cajanus cajan, Carthamus tinctorius, Cicer arietinum, Echium plantagineum, Glycine max, Gossypium hirsutum, Helianthus annuus, Linum usitatissimum, Lupinus angustifolius, Medicago sativa, Nicotiana tabacum, Pisum sativum, Sesbania cannabina, Australian, New Zealand, Tasmania Highly migratory. It has a complex diapause strategy and is highly fecund, laying ( eggs over the reproductive period of days). These four features (polyphagy, mobility, diapause and high fecundity) allow it to multiply and survive under diverse conditions. In sub-tropical and temperate areas of eastern Australia, 19

23 Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), Sonchus oleraceus, Trifolium spp., T. pratense, T. repens, T. subterraneum, Vicia faba, Vigna unguiculata pupae enter a winter diapause, but some survive the winter as non-diapausing individuals, emerging before the bulk of the diapausing population (Murray and Zalucki, 1994). Causes severe damage on grain legumes costing ~ $A 20 million for control in Western Australia, Victoria and South Australia. H. punctigera and H. armigera together cause an estimated cost of control and damage of $A250 million annually in Australia (Adamson et al., 1997). 17. * Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) American cotton Seed, as contaminant Abelmoschus esculentus, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Undergoes pupal diapause and pupation 20

24 Synonyms Bombyx obsoleta Fabricius, Chloridea obsoleta Fabricius, Heliothis armigera Hübner, H. ochracea Cockerell, H. umbrosa Grote, H. zea Boddie, Phalaena zea (Boddie) Order: Lepidoptera Family: Noctuidae bollworm, corn earworm, tomato fruit worm Abutilon theophrasti, Amaranthus spp., Arachis hypogaea, Brassica oleracea var. capitata, B. oleracea, Cajanus cajan, Capsicum spp., C. annuum, Cicer arietinum, Citrus spp., Coronilla varia, Cucumis melo, C. sativus, Fragaria spp., F. ananassa, Geranium carolinianum, Gerbera sp., Glycine max, Gossypium spp., Helianthus annuus, Lactuca sativa, Lespedeza cuneata, Lonicera japonica, Medicago lupulina, M. sativa, Nicotiana tabacum, Panicum Bahamas, Barbados, Bermuda, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Falkland Islands, French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Montserrat, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Surinam, Trinidad and Tobago, Uruguay, USA, Venezuela occurs in the soil. It has a high fecundity ( ) and generations per year have been recorded in tropics. Second most important pest in North America. Annual losses by H. zea and H. virescens together on all crops in USA is >US$ 1000 million, despite the expenditure of 250 million US$ on insecticide application (Fitt, 1989). Migratory in nature and can fly hundreds of kilometers. Added to EPPO A1 list of quarantine pests in 2006 and is a quarantine pest for APPPC. 21

25 miliaceum, Pharbitis purpurea, Phaseolus vulgaris, Quercus sp., Salix sp., Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. melongena, Sorghum spp., Trifolium sp., T. incarnatum, Vicia sativa, V. villosa, Vigna unguiculata, Zea mays 18. *Heliothis virescens (Fabricius) Order: Lepidoptera Family: Noctuidae Synonyms Chloridea rhexiae (J.E. Smith) C. virescens (Fabricius) Pigeonpea pod borer, tobacco budworm, tomato budworm, tomato flaxworm Seed, as contaminant Abelmoschus esculentus, Abutilon theophrasti, Antirrhinum majus, Arachis hypogaea, Cajanus cajan, Capsicum annuum, Cicer arietinum, Coronilla varia, Cucurbita pepo, Desmodium Antigua, Antilles, Argentina, Bahamas, Barbados, Barbuda, Bermuda, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Cayman Islands, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, French High mobility, polyphagy, high reproductive rate and diapause make H. virescens well suited to act as a serious pest on a wide range of crops. Larval stages tunnel 5-15 cm into the soil and pupate for

26 Helicoverpa virescens Heliothis rhexiae (J.E. Smith) H. spectanda Strecker Noctua virescens Fabricius Xanthia prasina Walker X. viridescens Walker tortuosum, Eucalyptus spp., Geranium spp., G. carolinianum, Glycine max, Gossypium spp., Helianthus annuus, Ipomoea batatas, Lactuca sativa, Linum usitatissimum, Lonicera japonica, Medicago lupulina, Nicotiana tabacum, Petunia spp., Phaseolus spp., P. vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), Sorghum bicolor, Trifolium incarnatum, Vicia sativa, V. villosa, Zea mays Guiana, Grenada, Guatemala, Grenadines, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Lesser Antilles, Martinique, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts Nevis, Saint Lucia, Trinidad, Tobago, Uruguay, USA, Vincent, Virgin Islands, Venezuela weeks emergence. before Exhibits a facultative diapause to survive low winter temperatures or hot and dry summers. In Arizona and California, USA, it enters summer diapause when larvae are exposed to 43 C for 8 h per day (Butler et al., 1985). Cotton bolls, tomato fruit, tobacco leaves and maize cobs are attacked, resulted in significant economic losses (King, 1994). 23

27 19. *Hypera zoilus (Fabricius) Synonyms Brachyrhinus punctatus Latreille, Curculio punctatus Fabricius, C. zoilus (Scopoli), Hypera austriaca (Schrank), H. media (Marsham), H. opima (Scopoli), H. punctata (Fabricius), H. rufa (Boheman), Phytonomus punctatus (Fabricius), Rhynchaenus punctatus Fabricius Order: Coleoptera Family: Curculionidae Clover leaf weevil Seed, as contaminant Arctium lappa, Glycine max, Helianthus tuberosus, Medicago falcata, M. sativa, Melilotus spp., Phleum pratense, Solidago spp., Trifolium incarnatum, T. pretense, Triticum aestivum, Zea mays Algeria, Bulgaria, Canada, Czech Republic, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), Denmark, Estonia, Ethiopia, Finland, France, Germany, Gibraltar, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, UK, USA, Yugoslavia (erstwhile) Probably a native of southern Europe. It was first reported in the USA in 1880 and is presently widespread in the USA and Canada The first recorded in Japan in (CAB International, 2007). Inhabits soil (Larrimer, 1926). Smith and Michelbacher (1945) reported considerable defoliation/ damage on lucerne. Spraying of infested fields in the spring when clover or lucerne is 2 to 6'' high with malathion or carbaryl has been recommended as treatment (Metcalf and Metcalf, 1992). 24

28 20. *Loxostege sticticalis Linnaeus Order: Lepidoptera Family: Crambidae Beet meadow moth, beet webworm, sugarbeet webworm Pod, as contaminant Allium cepa, Arachis spp., Arachis hypogaea, Asparagus officinalis, A. adsurgens, Atriplex patula, Avena sativa, Beta vulgaris var. altissima, Brassica juncea subsp. juncea, B. napus subsp. napus, B. nigra, B. oleracea, B. rapa, Cannabis sativa, Capsicum annuum, Chenopodium album, C. ficifolium, Citrullus lanatus, Cucumis melo, C. sativus, Daucus carota, Echinochloa crusgalli, Glycine max, Gossypium spp., Helianthus annuus, Hibiscus trionum, Illicium verum, Bulgaria, China, Italy, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Netherlands, Romania, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Yugoslavia (erstwhile) Pre-pupae exhibit diapause. Pupa hides in a white silk cocoon, glued to soil particles. Intermittent abundance with long periodicity is a feature of L. sticticalis. In China and USSR (erstwhile), this species showed intermittent abundance with population cycles of ~20 years periodicity in the 20 th century (Knor, 1986; Anonymous, 1987a, b). Migration and intermittent abundance enable this species to suddenly emerge in an area. Knor (1986) described outbreak of population on a large 25

29 Lactuca sativa, Linum usitatissimum, Medicago falcata, M. sativa, Melilotus albus, Nicotiana tabacum, Pisum sativum, P. sativum subsp. sativum, Polygonum aviculare, Raphanus sativus, Ricinus communis, Sesamum indicum, Solanum tuberosum, Sorghum bicolor, Triticum spp., Vicia faba, Zea mays number of agricultural crops in Western Siberia. 21. * Lygus lineolaris Palisot de Beauvois Synonyms Capsus flavonotatus Provancher, C. lineolaris Palisot de Beauvois, Tarnished plant bug Seed, pod, as contaminant Amaranthus cruentus, Anethum graveolens, Apium graveolens, Asparagus officinalis, Aster spp., A. pilosus, Bellis perennis, Bermuda, Canada, El Salvador, Georgia, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, USA Has a very wide host range in North America including 328 plant species, of which 130 are economically important. This represents 55 plant 26

30 C. oblineatus Say, C. strigulatus Walker, Lygus pratensis var. rubidus Knight Order: Hemiptera Family: Miridae Beta vulgaris, Brassica napus var. napus, B. oleracea var. botrytis, B. oleracea var. capitata, Calendula officinalis, Cosmos spp., Cucumis sativus, Dahlia hybrids, Daucus carota, Erigeron spp., Fragaria ananassa, Gladiolus hybrids, Glycine max, Gossypium hirsutum, Helianthus spp., Lespedeza cuneata, Malus spp., Medicago sativa, Papaver nudicaule, Phaseolus lunatus, P. vulgaris, Pinus echinata, Populus spp., Prunus persica, Pyrus communis, Rubus spp., Salvia officinalis, Sinapis families belonging to 30 of the 70 orders of angiosperms in North America (Young, 1986). Causes significant yield losses in different crops including P. vulgaris and P. lunatus. It is a principal mired pest of these crops in eastern and southern USA (Schwartz and Foottit, 1992). Adults overwinter in dead plants and soil (Cleveland, 1982). 27

31 alba, Solanum tuberosum, Tragopogon porrifolius, Trifolium incarnatum, Verbena spp., Vicia sativa, Zinnia elegans 22. *Naupactus peregrinus (Buchanan) Synonyms Graphognathus peregrinus (Buchanan), Pantomorus peregrinus Order: Coleoptera Family: Curculionidae Whitefringed beetle Pod, soil as contaminant Glycine max Argentina, USA Cryptic and nocturnally active and collection is difficult. As a result, exotic N. peregrinus entering the state may remain undetected for many years until their population builds up to economically important levels. Parthenogenetic species, but in South America bisexual populations are known and only females have been collected in USA. 28

32 23. *Naupactus xanthographus (Germar) Synonym Pantomorus xanthographus (Germar) Order: Coleoptera Family: Curculionidae South American fruit tree weevil Seed, pod, as contaminant Actinidia chinensis, Annona cherimola, Citrus spp., Eriobotrya japonica, Glycine max, Malus domestica, Medicago sativa, Olea europaea subsp. europaea, Persea americana, Prunus armeniaca, P. amygdalus, P. avium, P. domestica, P. persica, Pyrus spp., P. communis, Solanum tuberosum, Vitis vinifera America, Argentina, Chile, Uruguay (Wibmer and O'Brien, 1986) A generation is completed in months (Caballero, 1972). Larvae are positively geotropic and enter the soil and live at a depth of cm. Larval stage lasts for months. Pupation occurs in soil. Adults live up to eight months. Recognized by Canada as a potential quarantine pest in mid-1980s, and has since been included in the list of Pests Regulated by Canada. 24. * Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner) Synonyms Micracris nubilalis Botys, Pyrausta nubilalis Corn borer, corn moth, European corn borer, European Seed, as contaminant Amaranthus retroflexus, Arctium minus, Artemisia vulgaris, Avena sativa, Capsicum sp., C. annuum, Algeria, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Cyprus, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), Denmark, Egypt, France, Georgia, Yield losses in maize, sorghum, cotton, capsicum, potato and other crops have been reported (CAB International, 2007). 29

33 Meyrick Order: Lepidoptera Family: Pyralidae maize borer, European stalk borer Chrysanthemum sp.,cynara scolymus, Datura stramonium, Echinochloa crusgalli, Glycine max, Gossypium sp., Helianthus annuus, Hordeum vulgare, Humulus lupulus, Malus domestica, Pennisetum glaucum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Prunus persica, Setaria italica, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. tuberosum, Sorghum sp., S. halepense, Triticum aestivum, Zea mays Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Libya, Moldova, Morocco, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Turkey, Tunisia, Ukraine, UK, USA, Yugoslavia (erstwhile) Full-grown larva over winters in tunnels in stubble, stalk, maize ear, etc. 30

34 25. *Platynota stultana Walsingham Synonyms Platynota chiquitana Barnes & Busck, Sparganothis chiquitana, S. stultana Order: Lepidoptera Family: Tortricidae Omnivoro us leaf roller Seed, pod as internal infestation Actinidia arguta, Albizia spp., Amaranthus spp., Ambrosia spp., Annona cherimola, Apium graveolens, Arachis spp., Aster spp., Beta vulgaris, Capsicum annuum, Chenopodium album, Chrysanthemum spp., Citharexylum spinosum, Citrus spp., C. limon, C. maxima, C. reticulata, C. sinensis, Cotoneaster spp., Cyclamen spp., Dianthus caryophyllus, Eucalyptus spp., Gardenia spp., Glycine max, Gossypium spp., Juglans regia, Juniperus spp., Malus spp., Medicago sativa, Mexico, USA Not on EPPO's A1 or A2 list. However, it is, mentioned in the alert list ( P. stultana is a quarantine pest in Chile ( ytotxt/chile.html); China ( ytotxt/china.html) and New Zealand ( ytotxt/newzeala.html.) 31

35 Mentha spp., Pelargonium spp., Persea americana, Phaseolus spp., Pinus sp., Portulaca grandiflora, Prunus persica, Punica granatum, Pyrus spp., Ribes spp., Rosa spp., Rubus spp., Senecio spp., Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), Sorghum bicolor, Taxus spp., Trifolium spp., Vigna unguiculata, Vitis vinifera, Zea mays 32

36 26. * Popillia japonica Newman Synonyms Aserica japonica (Motsch.), Autoserica japonica (Motsch.), Maladera japonica (Motschulsky), Serica japonica Motsch. Order: Coleoptera Family: Scarabaeidae Japanese beetle Seed, as contaminant Acer spp., Aesculus spp., Althaea spp., Asparagus officinalis, Betula spp., Castanea spp., Glycine max, Hibiscus spp., Juglans nigra, Lagerstroemia indica, Malus spp., Platanus spp., Polygonum spp., Populus spp., Prunus spp., Rheum hybridum, Rosa spp., Rubus spp., Salix spp., Sassafras albidum, Sorbus americana, Tilia spp., Ulmus spp., Vitis spp., Zea mays Azores, Canada, China, Japan, Portugal, Russia, UK, USA Damage to soybean, maize, tree species, and small fruits is significant. Grubs and adults control requires hundreds of millions of US$ each year, and in renovating or replacing damaged turf or ornamental plants (Potter, 1998). Regarded as an A1 quarantine pest for EPPO (OEPP/ EPPO, 1980) and is also of quarantine significance for Caribbean Plant Protection Commission (CPPC), Junta de Acuerdo de Cartagena, North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO) and Organismo Internacional Regional de Sanidad 33

37 Agropecuaria(OIRSA ). Within the USA, P. japonica is an object of USDA/APHIS quarantine, restricting interstate shipment of plant material with soil and interstate movement of aircraft from regulated airports. 27. *Sitona cylindricollis Fåhraeus Synonyms Sitona alpinensis Tanner, S. meliloti Watson, Sitones cylindricollis Fåhraeus, S. procerus Casey Order: Coleoptera Family: Curculionidae Sweet clover weevil Seed, as contaminant Caragana arborescens, Glycine max, Medicago lupulina, M. sativa, Melilotus officinalis subsp. alba, M. officinalis, Trifolium alexandrinum, T. repens, Trigonella spp., Vicia sativa, Vigna spp. Afghanistan, Albania, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Iran, Israel, Italy, Lithuania, Morocco, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Adults overwinter in surface trash and in soil to a depth of 1. Eggs are dropped indiscriminately in soil and pupation builds up in soil. A major pest of lucerne in South central countries causing so much damage in some areas that planting of lucerne has been 34

38 Switzerland, Turkey, Turkmenistan, USA, Uzbekistan, Yugoslavia (erstwhile) abandoned (Hastings and Pepper, 1949). In Eastern Uzbekistan, up to 87.5% of root nodules of lucerne were destroyed by larvae of S. cylindricollis and other Sitona species (CAB International, 2007). In field cage tests in in Canada, one adult weevil per seedling destroyed 100% of the seedlings of sweet clover (Craig, 1978). Severe losses also recorded from many states of USA (CAB International, 2007). 28. *Solenopsis interrupta Santochi Red imported fire ant Seed, as contaminant Abelmoschus esculentus, Arachis hypogaea, Carya Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Australia, Bahamas, Highly invasive pest. Its long-distance 35

39 Synonyms Solenopsis invicta Buren, S. saevissima var. wagneri Santschi, S. wagneri Santschi Order: Hymenoptera Family: Formicidae illinoinensis, Citrullus lanatus, Citrus spp., Fragaria ananassa, Glycine max, Ipomoea batatas, Pinus spp., Solanum melongena, Sorghum bicolor, Zea mays Brazil, British Virgin Islands, China, Costa Rica, North America (as a whole), Paraguay, Puerto Rico, South America (as a whole), Trinidad and Tobago, USA transport occurs when mated queen ants or colonies are shipped from one location to another on virtually any article of commerce, particularly those contaminated with soil that often clings to the bottoms of support pallets. It is thought to have been inadvertently transported to the Port of Mobile, Alabama, USA around 1930s, in the ballast of cargo ships from the Paraguay River drainage in South America (Vinson, 1997). Although exact economic costs of fire south-eastern USA have been more than half a billion to ant damage and control 36

40 are unknown, estimates for the several billion US$ per year (Williams et al., 2001). 29. *Spermophagus moerens Boheman Order: Coleoptera Family: Bruchidae Seed beetle Seed Acacia spp., Albizzia sp., A. saponaria, Arachis hypogea, Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Cajanus cajan, Calliandra sp., C. eriophylla, C. tapiorum, Cassia fistula, Chaemaechrista glandulosa, Coursetia sp., Desmanthus spp., D. unciniatum, Erythrina sp., Glycine hispida, G. max, Leucaena glauca, L. leucocephala, Mimosa spp., Neptunia plena, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Lesotho, Mexico, Nicaragua, South Africa, USA, Venezuela Causes hidden infestation in seed. 37

41 Olneya tesota, Pithecellobium pallens, Prosopis juliflora, Robinia pseudo-acaciae, Samanea saman, Sesbania spp. 30. *Spodoptera eridania Stoll Synonyms Laphygma eridania (Stoll), Noctua eridania Stoll, Prodenia eridania (Stoll), P. externa (Walker), P. nigrofascia (Hulst), P. xylomiges Cramer, Spodoptera amygia (Guenée), S. bipunctata (Walker), S. derupta (Morrison), S. externa (Walker), S. ignobilis (Butler), S. inquieta (Walker), S. linea (Fabricius), S. nigrofascia (Hulst), S. phytolaccae (Smith), Southern armywor m Seed, as contaminant Abelmoschus esculentus, Alcea rosea, Allium cepa, Amaranthus spp., Apium graveolens, Arachis hypogaea, Beta spp., Brassica oleracea, Capsicum annuum, Chenopodium quinoa, Chrysanthemum morifolium, Citrullus lanatus, Citrus spp., Coriandrum sativum, Cucurbita maxima, Daucus carota, Dianthus caryophyllus, Dianthus spp., Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Barbados, Bermuda, Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Denmark, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, French Guiana, Galapagos Islands, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guyana, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad, Tobago, USA Classified as A1 pest in EPPO list of quarantine pests, but it is not listed as a quarantine pest by any other Regional Plant Protection Organization (RPPO). Mainly a sub-tropical species and temperature of C is optimum for its development and continuous breeding. 38

42 S. putrida (Guenée), S. recondita (Möschler), S. strigifera (Walker), Xylomyges eridania (Stoll), X. eridania (Stoll) Order: Lepidoptera Family: Noctuidae Digitaria spp., Dioscorea spp., Gladiolus hybrids, Glycine max, Gossypium spp., Helianthus spp., Ipomoea batatas, Manihot esculenta, Medicago sativa, Musa spp., Nerium oleander, Nicotiana tabacum, Odontoglossum spp., Oryza sativa, Pelargonium spp., Persea americana, Pharbitis purpurea, Phaseolus vulgaris, Rheum hybridum, Ricinus communis, Salix spp. Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. melongena, S. tuberosum, Sonchus oleraceus, Trifolium spp., Vaccinium macrocarpon, 39

43 Vicia faba, Vigna unguiculata, Zea mays, Zinnia spp. 31. * Spodoptera frugiperda Smith Synonyms Caradrina frugiperda, Laphygma frugiperda Guenee, L. inepta Walker, L. macra Guenee, Noctua frugiperda Smith, Phalaena frugiperda Smith & Abbot, Prodenia autumnalis Riley, P. plagiata Walker, P. signifera Walker, Trigonophora frugiperda Geyer Order: Lepidoptera Family: Noctuidae Fall armywor m Seed, as contaminant Agrostis spp., A. gigantean, Alcea rosea, Allium cepa, Amaranthus spp., Andropogon virginicus, Arachis hypogaea, Asparagus officinalis, Atropa belladonna, Avena sativa, Beta vulgaris, B. vulgaris var. altissima, Brassica oleracea, B. oleracea var. capitata, B. rapa, B. rapa subsp. rapa, Capsicum annuum, Carex spp., Carya spp., C. illinoinensis, Cenchrus incertus, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Caribbean (as a whole), Central America (as a whole), Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, French Guiana, Germany, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Martinique, Mexico, Montserrat, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Tropical species adapted to warmer parts of the world. The optimum temperature for larval development is 28 C. In Nicaragua, infestation during mid to late whorl stage of maize development caused yield losses of 15-73% (Hruska and Gould, 1997). Listed in the EPPO A1 list of quarantine pests, but is not listed as a quarantine pest by any other Regional Plant Protection Organization (RPPO). 40

44 Chenopodium album, C. quinoa, Chloris gayana, Chrysanthemum spp., C. morifolium, Cicer arietinum, Citrullus lanatus, Citrus aurantium, C. limon, C. reticulata, C. sinensis, Codiaeum variegatum, Convolvulus spp., Cucumis sativus, Cyperus rotundus, Dahlia pinnata, Dianthus caryophyllus, Echinochloa colona, Fagopyron esculentum, Fragaria chiloensis, Gladiolus sp., Glycine max, Gossypium herbaceum, Hevea brasiliensis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, South America (as a whole), Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Virgin Islands, Uruguay, USA, Venezuela 41

45 Hibiscus cannabinus, Hordeum vulgare, Ipomoea batatas, Lactuca sativa, Malus domestica, Medicago sativa, Mucuna pruriens, Musa spp., Nicotiana tabacum,oryza sativa, Panicum miliaceum, Pelargonium spp., Pennisetum clandestinum, P. glaucum, Pharbitis purpurea, Phaseolus spp., Phaseolus vulgaris, Phleum pratense, Pisum sativum, Platanus occidentalis, Plumeria spp., Poa annua, P. pratensis, Portulaca oleracea, Prunus persica, Saccharum 42

46 officinarum, Secale cereale, S. italica, S. viridis, Solanum melongena, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. tuberosum, Sorghum bicolor, S. caffrorum, S. halepense, S. sudanense, Spinacia oleracea, Trifolium spp., T. pratense, T. repens, Triticum aestivum, Urochloa spp., Vaccinium macrocarpon, Vigna unguiculata, Viola spp., Vitis spp., V. vinifera, Xanthium strumarium, Zea mays, Z. mexicana, Zingiber officinale 43

47 32. * Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval) Synonyms Hadena littoralis Boisduval, Noctua gossypii, Prodenia littoralis (Boisduval), P. litura Fabricius sensu auctorum, P. retina (Freyer), P. testaceoides Guenee Order: Lepidoptera Family: Noctuidae Cotton leafworm Seed, as contaminant Abelmoschus esculentus, Acacia nilotica, Actinidia arguta, Alcea rosea, Allium cepa, A. fistulosum, Amaranthus spp., Anemone spp., Antirrhinum majus, Apium graveolens, Arachis hypogaea, Asparagus officinalis, Beta vulgaris, B. vulgaris var. altissima, Brassica oleracea, B. oleracea var. capitata, B. rapa, Caladium spp., Callistephus chinensis, Camellia sinensis, Canna spp., Capsicum spp., C. annuum, Casuarina equisetifolia, Chloris gayana, Convolvulus spp., Chrysanthemum Algeria, Angola, Bahrain, Benin, Botswana, Burundi, Cameroon, Congo, Congo Democratic Republic, Cyprus, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Greece, Guinea, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Ivory Coast, Jordan, Kenya, Lebanon, Libya, Madagascar, Madeira, Malawi, Mali, Malta, Mauritania, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Oman, Portugal, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Spain, Sudan, Swaziland, Syria, Tanzania, One of the most destructive pests within sub-tropical and tropical range. Pods of cowpea and seed inside pods are badly damaged. Shows differences in response to cold both between strains and within developmental stages of the pest (Powell and Gostick, 1971). It is a potential pest of areas where the average annual minimum temperature does not go below -10 C. There are many reports of resistance to some of the insecticides (CAB International, 2007). Standard treatment used in UK is cold storage for 2-4 days at 44

48 indicum, Citrullus lanatus, Citrus spp., C. aurantium, Coffea arabica, Corchorus capsularis, C. olitorius, Cryptomeria spp., Cucurbita pepo, Cynara scolymus, Dalbergia sissoo, Datura spp., Daucus carota, Dianthus barbatus, D. caryophyllus, Eucalyptus globulus, Ficus carica, Fragaria vesca, Gerbera spp., Gladiolus hybrids, Glycine max, Gossypium barbadense, Guizotia abyssinica, Helianthus annuus, H. tuberosus, Hibiscus cannabinus, H. mutabilis, Togo, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda, UAE, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe 7 C, followed by methyl bromide fumigation at C (Mortimer and Powell, 1988). This has also been adopted as an EPPO quarantine procedure (OEPP/ EPPO, 1990). Listed as A2 quarantine pest of EPPO (OEPP/ EPPO, 1981). Caribbean Plant Protection Commission (CPPC), North American Plant Protection Organization (NAPPO) and Organismo Internacional Regional de Sanidad Agropecuaria (OIRSA) also considered it to be of quarantine significance. 45

49 Indigofera tinctoria, Ipomoea batatas, Jatropha curcas, Lactuca sativa, Lantana spp., Luffa aegyptiaca, Malus sylvestris, Medicago sativa, Melilotus spp., Mentha spicata, Monstera deliciosa, Morus spp., Musa spp., Musa x paradisiaca, Nicandra physaloides, Nicotiana tabacum, Opuntia spp., Oryza sativa, Persea americana, Phaseolus vulgaris, Phoenix dactylifera, Piper spp., Pistia stratiotes, Pisum sativum, Populus alba, Portulaca oleracea, Prunus domestica, Psidium 46

50 guajava, Punica granatum, Quercus petraea, Raphanus sativus, Ricinus communis, Rosa spp., Saccharum officinarum, Salvia officinalis, Senecio spp., Sesamum indicum, Sesbania sesban, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. melongena, S. tuberosum, Sorghum bicolor, Spinacia oleracea, Tectona grandis, Theobroma cacao, Trifolium alexandrinum, T. repens, Trigonella foenumgraecum, Triticum aestivum, Verbena spp., Vicia faba, Vigna angularis, V. mungo, V. radiata, 47

51 V. unguiculata, Viola odorata, Vitis vinifera, Zea mays, Zinnia elegans 33. *#Tenebrio molitor Linnaeus Synonym Tenebrio molitoria Fourcroy Order: Coleoptera Family: Tenebrionidae European meal worm Seed and meal Glycine max, Hordeum vulgare, Lens culinaris subsp. culinaris, Triticum aestivum, Zea mays Cosmopolitan but not yet reported from India Infests a wide range of stored grains, grain products, processed food products and even animal material. Cosmopolitan distribution is probably as a result of both accidental introductions by man through agricultural trade of grain and grain products, together with purposeful introductions into some countries where the larvae are reared as fish bait or food for birds. 48

52 34. *Tetramorium bicarinatum (Nylander) Order: Hymenoptera Family: Formicidae Guinea ant Seed, as contaminant Arachis hypogaea, Glycine max, Solanum melongena, Vigna unguiculata Australia, China, Costa Rica, Cuba, French Polynesia, Taiwan Common tramp species usually found inside houses, greenhouses, shade houses and in landscaped areas near houses. It can easily be transported along with soil, debris and packing material. 35. *Tetranychus arabicus Attiah Class: Arachnida Family: Tetranychidae Spider mite Seed, as contaminant Ficus carica, Glycine max, Gossypium spp., Malus domestica Egypt Eggs laid in soil. Reported to have resistance to dicofol, parathion-methyl and phosalone from Egypt ( resistance.org/db/spe cies_profile.php?arthr opodid=794). 36. *Tetranychus cucurbitacearum Sayed Class: Arachnida Family: Tetranychidae Spider mite Seed, as contaminant Arachis hypogaea, Glycine max, Gossypium spp. Egypt Eggs laid in soil and it is reported to have resistance to dicofol and parathion-methyl ( resistance.org/db/spe cies_profile.php?arthr 49

53 opodid=800) 37. *Tetranychus pacificus McGregor Class: Arachnida Family: Tetranychidae Pacific spider mite Seed, pods Asclepias spp., Ceanothus spp., Chenopodium album, Citrullus lanatus, Cotoneaster spp., Cucumis melo, Ficus carica, Fragaria spp., Glycine max, Gossypium barbadense, G. hirsutum, Helianthus spp., Medicago sativa, Melia azadirachta, Phaselus vulgaris, Prunus spp., Ribes spp., Robinia pseudoacacia, Rosa spp., Rubus spp., Salvia spp., Swietenia spp., Ulmus spp., Vicia spp., Vitis vinifera, Zea mays Canada, Mexico, USA Quarantine pest in Japan and Australia. All fresh fruits entering Japan and Australia have to be certified free of T. pacificus (Ahumada et al., 1996). 50

54 Nematodes 38. *Ditylenchus africanus Peanut pod nematode Seed, soil clods mixed with seeds Arachis hypogaea, Chenopodium album, Datura stramonium, Eleusine indica, Glycine max, Gossypium hirsutum, Helianthus annuus, Lupinus albus, Medicago sativa, Nicotiana tabacum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Solanum tuberosum, Sorghum bicolor, Tagetes minuta, Triticum aestivum, Vigna unguiculata, Xanthium strumarium, Zea mays South Africa Attacks mainly peanut pods causing 100% loss in some fields. Single pod may contain 10,000 nematodes (Venter et al., 1993). 51

55 39. *#Heterodera glycines Soybean cyst nematode Soil clods mixed with seeds Aeschynomene indica, Beta vulgaris, Cajanus cajan, Geranium sp., Glycine max, Kummerowia striata, Lamium amplexicaule, Lespedeza cuneata, Lupinus albus, Penstemon sp., Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Sesbania exaltata, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), Stellaria media, Verbascum thapsus, Vicia villosa, Vigna aconitifolia, V. angularis, V. mungo, V. radiata Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Ecuador, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Italy, Japan, Korea (DPR), Korea (Republic), Mangolia, Puerto Rico, Russia, Taiwan, USA Has considerable number of races which have different host ranges, optimum temperature for development is C and little development occurs at temperature below 15 0 C or above 33 0 C. The optimum temperature for hatching of juveniles is 24 0 C. 52

56 40. *#Heterodera goettingiana Pea cyst nematode Soil clods mixed with seeds Cicer arietinum, Glycine max, Lathyrus cicera, L. odoratus, L. sativus, Lens culinaris subsp. culinaris, Lupinus albus, L. luteus, Medicago sativa, P. sativum, Pisum sativum subsp. sativum, Vicia cracca, V. ervilia, V. benghalensis, V. faba, V. monantha Algeria, Belgium, Bulgaria, China, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Scotland, Slovenia, Spain, Turkey, Ukraine, UK, USA Has very large and varied host range comprising several families of plants. 41. * Heterodera schachtii Sugarbeet nematode Soil clods mixed with seeds Cicer arietinum, Glycine max, Lathyrus cicera, L. odoratus, L. sativus, Lens culinaris subsp. culinaris, Lupinus albus, L. luteus, Medicago sativa, P. sativum, Pisum sativum subsp. sativum, Vicia Albania, Algeria, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Cape Verde, Chile, China, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Has very large and varied host range comprising several families of plants. 53

57 benghalensis, V. cracca, V. ervilia, V. faba, V. monantha Israel, Italy, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Mexico, Moldova, Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Turkey, Tunisia, UK, Ukraine, Uruguay, USA Fungi 42. *Calonectria crotalariae (Loos) Bell & Sobers Synonyms Cylindrocladium crotalariae (Loos) Bell & Sobers, Cylindrocl adium black rot (CBR) in peanut, red crown rot in Soil, plant debris Actinidia chinensis, Anthurium spp., Arachis hypogaea, Desmodium tortuosum, Glycine max, Howea forsteriana, Australia, China, Japan, Korea Republic of, USA Losses attributable to Cylindrocladium black rot (CBR) on peanuts have been estimated to as high as 53% (Pataky et al., 1983) and a 50% loss 54

58 Calonectria theae var. crotalariae Loos soybean, Medicago sativa can be expected on susceptible soybean with 100% red crown rot incidence (Berner et al., 1988). 43. *Colletotrichum trifolii Bain & Essary Anthracno se, crown rot Seed, plant debris Glycine max, Medicago spp., M. sativa, Trifolium repens, Vigna angularis, V. radiata Australia, Morocco, South Africa Races 1, 2, 3 and 4 are known to occur and were differentiated by RAPD (Mackie et al., 2003). 44. *#Diaporthe phaseolorum var. caulivora Athow & Caldwell [teleomorph] Synonyms Diaporthe phaseolorum f.sp. caulivora Kulik [teleomorph], Phomopsis phaseoli f.sp. caulivora Kulik Stem canker of soybean Seed, fruit, plant debris Glycine max Argentina, Bulgaria, Canada, Ecuador, France, Italy, Korea, Russia, USA, Yugoslavia (erstwhile) In Europe, yield was reduced by 50-62% when stem canker occurred early (Vidic and Jasnic, 1988). Zhang et al. (1998) detected genomic differences among D. phaseolorum var. caulivora isolates and 55

59 [anamorph] D. phaseolorum var. meridionalis isolates, from Italy and USA, respectively, using RFLP. Pioli et al. (2003) separated four major taxa of the Diaporthe/ Phomopsis complex on the basis of RAPD analysis. 45. *Diaporthe phaseolorum var. meridionalis F.A. Fern. [teleomorph] Stem canker of soyabean, southern stem canker Seed, fruit, plant debris Aeschynomene americana, A. indica, Cajanus cajan, Crotalaria spp., Glycine max, Gossypium hirsutum, Indigofera hirsute, Jacquemontia tamnifolia, Lupinus spp., Phaseolus lunatus, Piper nigrum, Sesbania exaltata, S. macrocarpa, Solanum Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Ghana, Italy, Nigeria, Tanzania, USA Physiological races were reported in South America (Pioli et al., 2003). 56

60 lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. nigrum, Triticum aestivum, Xanthium strumarium 46. *Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. phaseoli J.B. Kendr. & W.C. Snyder Yellows of bean, wilt of bean Seeds, Fruits, plant debris Glycine max, Lupinus albus, L. luteus, Phaseolus spp., P. coccineus, P. vulgaris Brazil, China, Czech Republic, Egypt, Greece, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Mexico, Poland, Rwanda, Slovakia, Spain, USA, Yugoslavia (erstwhile) Alves-Santos et al. (2002a, b) reported presence of 7 races. They also characterized non pathogenic and pathogenic strains as well as highly virulent pathogenic strains by RAPD analysis. Woo et al. (1996) characterized its isolates on the basis of pathogenicity, vegetative compatible groups (VCGs), RFLPs and RAPD analysis and also reported five pathogenic races in it. 57

61 Yield loss of a minimum 10 % has been estimated in USA from Fusarium wilt in commom beans (Salgado et al., 1995). 47. *Fusarium redolens Wollenw. Synonyms Fusarium oxysporum var. redolens (Wollenw.) Gordon, F. redolens var. solani SHerb., F. solani var. redolens (Woll.) Gordon Root rot of pea, wilt of pepper, wilt of tomato Seed, fruit, plant debris Asparagus officinalis, Dianthus caryophyllus, Elaeis spp., Glycine max, Pinus strobus, Pisum sativum, Spinacia oleracea Africa (as a whole), Czech Republic, Finland Bogale et al. (2007) aligned translation elongation factor 1α (TEF-1α) gene sequences from F. redolens and F. oxysporum and designed F. redolensspecific primers which distinguished this species from all other Fusarium species. 58

62 48. *Fusarium solani f.sp. phaseoli (Burkholder) Snyder & Hansen Synonym Fusarium solani var. martii race 3 (Appel & Wollenw.) Wollenw. Dry root rot of beans, foot rot of bean, fusarium root rot of beans Seed, plant debris Glycine max, Phaseolus spp., P. coccineus, P. vulgaris Barbados, Brazil, Guadeloupe, Japan, Martinique, Poland, USA Pathogenic and nonpathogenic Fusarium species of different formae-speciales and races were diagnosed and also distinguished from Macrophomina phaseolina by a single primer RAPD with uniform PCR conditions (Jana et al., 2003). 49. *Fusarium tucumaniae Aoki, O'Donnell, Homma and Lattanzi, sp. nov. Synonym Fusarium solani (Martius) Saccardo f. sp. glycines Roy Sudden death syndrome Seed, Soil, plant debris Glycine max Argentina, Brazil, North and South America Aoki et al (2003) reported that studies on DNA sequences from the nuclear ribosomal intergenic spacer region and the single copy nuclear gene translation elongation factor 1-a, together with detailed morphological comparisons of conidial features, indicate that SDS of soybean in North and South America is 59

63 caused by two phylogenetically and morphologically distinct species. They described Fusarium virguliforme sp. nov., formally known as F. solani f. sp. glycines, is for the SDS pathogen in North America, and F. tucumaniae sp. nov. was proposed for the South American pathogen. Soybean yield losses from SDS can range from only slight to 100% ( s/sudden_death.htmaccessed on *Fusarium virguliforme O'Donnell & Aoki, sp. nov. sudden death syndrome Seed, Soil, plant debris Glycine max North America, USA Aoki et al (2003) reported that studies on DNA sequences from the nuclear 60

64 Synonyms Fusarium solani f.sp. glycines Roy, Fusarium martii Appel & Wollenw. var. viride Sherb., Mem. (Aoki et al., 2003) of soybean ribosomal intergenic spacer region and the single copy nuclear gene translation elongation factor 1-a, together with detailed morphological comparisons of conidial features, indicate that sudden death syndrome (SDS) of soybean in North and South America is caused by two phylogenetically and morphologically distinct species. They described Fusarium virguliforme sp. nov., formally known as F. solani f. sp. glycines, is for the SDS pathogen in North America, and F. tucumaniae sp. nov. was proposed for the South American pathogen. 61

65 Yield loss due to SDS in the top 10 soybean producing countries varies from in Canada to metric tons in the United States (Wrather et al., 2001). Soybean yield losses from SDS can range from only slight to 100%, depending on the soybean variety ( th.info/sds_basics.htm ). In 2009, a Michigan grower noted a greater than 50 percent yield loss du/fieldcrop/fieldcrop /tabid/56/articletype/ ArticleView/articleId/ 3030/Soybeansudden-deathsyndrome-SDS- Fusariumvirguliforme.aspx). 62

66 51. *Microsphaera diffusa Cooke & Petrak Synonym Erysiphe glycines Tai Powdery mildew of soybean Seed, plant debris Glycine max, Pisum sativum Brazil Grau (2006) reported yield losses of 0-10 bushels per acre from 1976 to 1978 in Iowa, USA. 52. *# Peronospora manshurica (Naumov) Syd. ex Gäum. Synonyms Peronospora sojae Lehman & F.A. Wolf, P. trifoliorum var. manshurica Naumov Downy mildew of soybean Seed, fruit, plant debris Glycine max, G. soja Argentina, Australia, Bermuda, Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Croatia, Cuba, Czech Republic, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), Denmark, Ethiopia, France, Germany, Hungary, Iran, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Korea (DPR), Korea (Republic), Latvia, Mexico, Moldova, New Zealand, Philippines, Poland, Puerto Rico, Romania, Russia, Bernard (1989) reported over 30 races. Race 35 was the most pathogenic, infecting 12 of the 16 differential cultivars (Marcinkowska, 1991). Three more races were identified and designated as races Zhong 1, 2 and 3 (Li et al., 1992). Lai et al. (2004) developed PCR for its identification in soybean. Losses of 10% were reported (Bernard, 1989). 63

67 Serbia and Montenegro, Siberia, Slovakia, South Africa, Sweden, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, Ukraine, UK, USA, Vietnam, Zimbabwe Dunleavy (1987) reported an average yield reduction of 11.8%. Losses of 10% have been reported from Romania (Rosca, 1975). 53. *#Phakopsora meibomiae (Arthur) Arthur Synonyms Aecidium crotalariae Henn., Malupa vignae (Bres.) Ono et al. [anamorph], Phakopsora aeschynomenes (Arthur) Arthur [anamorph], P. crotalariae (Dietel) Arthur, P. diehlii Cummins, P. psoraleae H.S. Jackson & Holw., P. vignae (Bres.) Arthur, Physopella aeschynomenes (Arthur) Soybean rust Seed (contaminant ), plant debris Aeschynomene spp., A. Americana, Calopogonium spp., Centrosema pubescens, Crotalaria spp., C. incana, C. juncea, C. pallida, Desmodium spp., D. tortuosum, Erythrina berteroana, E. fusca, Glycine max, Lablab purpureus, Pachyrhizus erosus, Macroptilium lathyroides, Phaseolus Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago, United States Virgin Islands, USA, Venezuela Classical and realtime fluorescent PCR assays were used to detect, identify and differentiate P. pachyrhizi and P. meibomiae (Frederick et al., 2002). P. meibomiae, referred to as the New World type, is a much weaker pathogen (Sweets et al., 2004). 64

68 Arthur, P. concors (Arthur) Arthur, P. meibomiae Arthur, Uredo aeschynomenes Arthur [anamorph], U. concors Arthur [anamorph], U. teramni Mayor [anamorph], U. vignae Bres. [anamorph] coccineus, P. lunatus, P. vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Rhynchosia spp., Vigna spp., V. mungo, V. unguiculata 54. *Phialophora gregata (Allington & D. W. Chamb.) W.Gams Brown stem rot of soybean and adzuki bean Seed, fruit, plant debris Glycine max, Phaseolus spp., P. vulgaris, Vigna angularis, V. radiata Argentina, Brazil Canada, Egypt, Japan, Puerto Rico, USA Heterodera glycines was reported as a vector (Carris et al., 1986). Bonato and Costamilan (1996) reported mean yield reductions of % in Brazil. Mengistu and Grau (1987) reported 13-30% yield losses in USA. 65

69 55. *Phomopsis longicolla Hobbs Pod and stem blight, Phomopsi s seed decay Seed, fruit, plant debris Abelmoschus esculentus, Abutilon theophrasti, Allium cepa, A. sativum, Alysicarpus vaginalis, Arachis hypogaea, Capsicum frutescens, Cicer arietinum, Glycine max, Kummerowia striata, Lotus corniculatus, Lupinus spp., Melilotus alba, Phaseolus acutifolius, P. coccineus, P. lunatus, P. vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), Strophostyles helvola, Trifolium pratense,vigna unguiculata Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Cameroon, Canada, Cuba, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), France, Hungary, Italy, Korea (Republic), Nepal, Puerto Rico, Romania, Russia, Senegal, Slovakia, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, USA, Venezuala, Yugoslavia (erstwhile) Detected speciesspecific pathogen in soybean seeds by RFLP and TaqMan chemistry (Zhang et al., 1999). 66

70 56. * Phytophthora cryptogea Pethybr. & Laff. Foot rot, damping off, black neck of chrysanthe mum, collar rot, blight, die-back, wilt, crown rot, corm, stem and leaf rot of gloxinia Bulb, corm, tuber, fruit, plant debris Abies concolor, A. procera, Actinidia chinensis, Allium cepa, Antirrhinum majus, Apium graveolens, Asparagus officinalis, Aster spp., Baccharis pilularis, Banksia spp., Begonia spp., Beta vulgaris, Brassica oleracea var. botrytis, Cajanus cajan, Calathea spp., Calendula officinalis, Callistephus chinensis, Capsicum annuum, Carpobrutus spp., Carthamus tinctorius, Castanea spp., Ceanothus prostratus, Cedrus deodara, Celosia argentea, Centaurea spp., Argentina, Australia, Austria, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Croatia, Czech Republic, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Korea (Republic), Netherlands, New Zealand, Ireland, Papua New Guinea, Poland, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Taiwan, UK, USA, Zimbabwe Pane et al. (2000) identified Phytophthora capsici, P. cryptogea and P. nicotianae using RAPD. Drenth and Irwin (2001) used PCRbased diagnostics for detection of different species of Phytophthora. 67

71 C. cyanus, Cerasus vulgaris, Chamaecyparis spp., Chrysanthemum spp., C. frutescens, C. vestitum, Cichorium spp., C. intybus, Citrullus lanatus, Citrus spp., Clarkia spp., Consolida ambigua, Cotoneaster spp., Cucumis melo, C. sativus, Cucurbita spp., C. maxima, C. moschata, C. pepo, Cupressus spp., Cyamopsis tetragonoloba, Cyphomandra betacea, Dahlia spp., Daucus carota, Dianthus barbatus, D. caryophyllus, Erica spp., Erysimum cheiri, 68

72 Eucalyptus spp., Euphorbia pulcherrima, Fragaria spp., Gerbera spp., G. jamesonii, Gladiolus sp., Glycine max, Gynura bicolor, Gypsophila paniculata, Hebe spp., Helianthus annuus, Humulus lupulus, Juglans regia, Juniperus chinensis, Lactuca sativa, Liatris spicata, Limonium sinuatum, Lupinus spp., Malus domestica, Maranta spp., Matthiola incana, Medicago sativa, Nasturtium officinale, Nicotiana tabacum, Onobrychis viciifolia, Papaver 69

73 nudicaule, Parthenium argentatum, Pericallis cruenta, Persea americana, Petroselinum crispum, Petunia hybrida, Phaseolus vulgaris, Picea spp., Pinus spp., Pinus lambertiana, P. mugo, P. nigra, P. radiata, Pistacia lentiscus, P. vera, Pisum spp., Populus simonii, Prunus amygdalus, P. armeniaca, P. avium, P. mahaleb, P. persica, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Rhododendron catawbiense, R. maximum, Rubus idaeus, Saintpaulia ionantha, Salvia officinalis, 70

74 Simmondsia chinensis, Sinningia speciosa, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. marginatum, S. melongena, S. tuberosum, Spinacia oleracea, Syzygium samarangense, Tagetes erecta, Tanacetum cinerariifolium, Triticum aestivum, Tulipa spp., Vaccinium oxycoccous, Vicia faba, V. sativa, V. villosa, V. Viola, Vitis vinifera, Zinnia elegans 57. *Phytophthora macrochlamydospora J.A.G. Irwin Stem rot, wilt disease of soybean, Seed, soil, plant debris Aeschynomene indica, Glycine max, Indigofera hirsute, Kennedia Australia Irwin and Mackie 2000 reported that it is a Group VI Phytophthora species, 71

75 Phytophth ora wilt of soybean rubicunda, Vigna angularis producing nonpapillate sporangia and antheridia are always amphigynous. It produces large (up to 90 µm), thickwalled chlamydospores that distinguish it from all other Group VI species. Drenth and Irwin, (2001) used PCRbased diagnostics for detection of different species of Phytophthora. Stovold and Smith (1991) reported infection up to 30% and loss of yield in soybean. 72

76 58. *#Phytophthora sojae Kaufm. & Gerd. [teleomorph] Synonyms Phytophthora megasperma f.sp. glycinea T.L. Kuan & Erwin, P. megasperma var. sojae Hildebr. [teleomorph], P. sojae f.sp. glycines Faris et al. Phytophth ora root and stem rot, root and stem rot of soybean Seed, fruit, plant debris Glycine max, Lupinus spp. Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Central Russia, Chile, China, France, Iran, Italy, Japan, Korea Republic of, Russia, Pakistan, Ukraine, USA Fifty five physiological races had been identified on the basis of their reaction to host differentials (Abney et al., 1997; Ryley et al., 1998; Leitz et al., 2000). Yield losses up to 72% were reported (Ryley et al., 1989). 59. *Verticillium nigrescens Pethybridge Seed reduction of soybean Seed, soil, plant debris Glycine max, Gossypium spp., Solanum tuberosum China, Japan, USA Millar and Roy (1982) reported isolating it from leaves, pods and seeds of soybean. Bacteria 60. * Burkholderia cepacia (ex Burkholder) Yabuuchi et al. Slippery skin of onion, sour skin Seed, bulb, plant debris Allium spp., A. cepa, A. sativum, Brassica rapa Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Egypt, Italy, Japan, Korea, Nigeria, Amplification of genomic DNA via repetitive sequencebased PCR using 73

77 Synonyms Pseudomonas cepacia (ex Burkholder) Palleroni & Holmes, P. kingii Jonsson, P. multivorans Stanier, Palleroni & Doudoroff of onion subsp. pekinensis, Cymbidium spp., Dendrobium spp., Euphorbia pulcherrima, Glycine max, Gossypium spp., Hordeum vulgare, Lactuca sativa, Malus domestica, Nicotiana tabacum, Paphiopedilum spp., Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. tuberosum, Zea mays Papua New Guinea, USA, Venezuela primers specific for repetitive extragenic palindromic elements, followed by cloning of the amplified fragments can detect the presence of as few as 10 cells in a mixed sample (Matheson et al., 1997). Yield losses of 5-50% were recorded (Schwartz and Mohan, 1995). 61. *#Curtobacterium flaccumfaciens pv. flaccumfaciens (Hedges) Collins & Jones Synonyms Bacterium flaccumfaciens Hedges, Bacterial tan spot, bean wilt Seed, fruit, plant debris Glycine max, Ipomoea spp., Lablab purpureus, Phaseolus coccineus, P. lunatus, P. vulgaris, Vigna angularis, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Mauritius, Romania, Russia, Tunisia, USA Detected in infected seeds of P. vulgaris by PCR (Tegli et al., 2002). Sporadic yield losses up to 19% have been recorded in soybean in USA (Dunleavy, 1984). 74

78 Corynebacterium flaccumfaciens pv. flaccumfaciens (Hedges) Dowson, Phytomonas flaccumfaciens (Hedges) Bergey et al., Pseudomonas flaccumfaciens (Hedges) Stevens V. radiata, V. unguiculata, Zornia spp. 62. Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. phaseolicola (Burkholder) Gardan et al. Synonyms Bacterium medicaginis var. phaseolicola (Burkholder) Link & Hull, B. puerariae Hedges, Phytomonas medicaginis var. phaseolicola Burkholder, P. puerariae (Hedges), Bergey et al., P. vignae Bacterial alfalfa stem blight, bacterial bean blight, bacterial pear canker, bacterial stone fruit canker, bacterial trees canker, grease Seed, fruit, plant debris Brassica rapa subsp. pekinensis, Cajanus cajan, Centrosema spp., Datura stramonium, Desmodium spp., Glycine max, Ipomoea batatas, Lactuca sativa, Lablab purpureus, Phaseolus spp., P. acutifolius, P. coccineus, P. lunatus, P. vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Pyrus Argentina, Australia, Austria, Barbados, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Burundi Canada, Chile, Colombia, Congo Democratic Republic, Costa Rica, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), Denmark, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Ethiopia, Fiji, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Taylor et al. (1996) reported that a number of races (1, 2, 5, 6 and 7) were distributed worldwide and race 6 is predominant. Other races were found mainly in Africa: races 3 and 4 in East/ Central Africa and races 8 and 9 in Southern Africa. P. savastanoi pv. phaseolicola can be specifically identified using PCR (Audy et. 75

79 (Gardn. & Kendr.) Karassilnikov, Pseudomonas cerasi (=cerasus) Griffin, P. holci Kendrick, P. medicaginis P. medicaginis f.sp. phaseolicola (Burkholder) Dowson, P. medicaginis var. phaseolicola (Burkholder) Stapp & Kotte, P. phaseolicola (Burkholder) Dowson, P. syringae pv. phaseolicola (Burkholder) Young et al., P. vignae Gardner & Kendrick, Xanthomonas medicaginis var. phaseolicola (Burkholder) Elliott, X. phaseolicola spot of beans, halo blight of beans communis, Vigna angularis, V. radiata, V. unguiculata Guadeloupe, Hungary, India, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jersey, Kenya, Lesotho, Lithuania, Madagascar, Malawi, Martinique, Mauritius, Mexico, Morocco, Mozambique, Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, Peru, Poland, Romania, Russia, Rwanda, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Spain, Suriname, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzerland, Tanzania, Turkey, Uganda, UK, USA, Venezuela, Yemen, Yugoslavia (erstwhile), Zambia, Zimbabwe al., 1996; Borowicz et al., 2002). Yield losses of 43% in UK and 23-43% in USA were observed under experimental conditions (Allen et al., 1998). Reported from India, but a number of races are known to occur worldover, hence it is of quarantine significance. 76

80 63. *#Pseudomonas viridiflava (Burkholder) Dowson Synonyms Bacterium viridiflavum (Burkholder) Burgvits, Chlorobacter viridiflavus (Burkholder) Patel & Kulkarni, Phytomonas viridiflava Burkholder Bacterial leaf blight of tomato, bacterial leaf necrosis of basil, bacterial rot of Chinese cabbage, bacterial rot of lettuce, bacterial soft rot of tomato, Hydrange a bud blight Seed, fruit, plant debris Actinidia chinensis, Allium cepa, A. fistulosum, Anethum graveolens, Apium graveolens, Brassica spp., B. oleracea var. botrytis, B. oleracea, B. oleracea, B. rapa subsp. pekinensis, Calendula officinalis, Capsicum spp., C. annuum, C. frutescens, Carthamus tinctorius, Chrysanthemum indicum, Cichorium endivia, Citrus aurantium, C. macrophylla, C. sinensis, Coriandrum sativum, Cryptotaenia canadensis, Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Czech Republic, Egypt, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kenya, Korea (Republic), Nepal, Macedonia, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland, Tanzania, Turkey, Uganda, UK, USA, Venezuela, Yugoslavia (erstwhile) Detected and identified by LOPAT determinative tests (Lelliott et al. 1966) and a PCR assay (Jakob et al., 2002). Atypical isolates could be identified by RFLP method using 16S rdna digestions with selected endonucleases, SacI and HinfI (Gonzalez et al., 2003). Czelleng et al. (2006) isolated and characterized the gene mvin pv encoding a putative novel membrane associated virulence factor of P. viridiflava. They also reported that a mutation in mvin pv influence motility as well as virulence of P. viridiflava. 77

81 Cucumis melo, C. sativus, Cucurbita maxima, Cyclamen persicum, Eschscholzia californica, Euphorbia pulcherrima, Eutrema wasabi, Forsythia suspensa, Glycine max, Hydrangea spp., Lablab purpureus, Lotus corniculatus, Lupinus angustifolius, Medicago sativa, Nicotiana rustica, Ocimum basilicum, Papaver spp., P. nudicaule, Passiflora edulis, Pastinaca sativa, Petroselinum crispum, Petunia hybrida, Phaseolus coccineus, P. lunatus, 78

82 P. vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Prunus armeniaca, P. avium, Pseudopanax spp., Pyrus communis, Raphanus sativus, Rosa spp., Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), Sorghum bicolor, S. sudanense, Tanacetum coccineum, Trifolium pratense, Tropaeolum majus, Vaccinium corymbosum, Vicia faba, Vigna angularis, V. unguiculata, Viola spp., Vitis vinifera, Zea mays, Zinnia elegans 79

83 64. * Rhizobium rhizogenes (Riker et al.) Young et al. Synonyms Agrobacterium biovar 2 (Riker et al., ) Conn, A. radiobacter (Beijerinck & Van Delden) Kerr et al., A. rhizogenes (Riker et al.) Conn, A. tumefaciens biovar 2, A. tumefaciens biotype 2, Bacterium rhizogenes Riker et al., Erwinia rhizogenes (Riker et al.) Dowson, Phytomonas rhizogenes Riker et al. Bacterial gall, bacterial stem gall, beet crown gall, burr knot, crown gall, crown gall of beet, crown knot, gall, hairy root of apple, root gall, root knot, Rosaceae crown gall Seed (contaminant), rooted cuttings, bare-rooted seedlings Abies alba, A. concolor, A. firma, A. grandis, A. nordmanniana, Acalypha spp., Acer spp., A. saccharinum, Achillea millefolium, Actinidia chinensis, Aesculus spp., A. hippocastanum, Ageratum houstonianum, Alcea rosea, Allamanda spp., Althaea cannabina, Allium cepa, Alnus rubra, Amaranthus caudatus, Anagallis arvensis, Anemone spp., Antirrhinum majus, Apium graveolens, Apocynum cannabinum, Aporocactus flagelliformis, Aralia cordata, Algeria, Australia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Estonia, France, French West Indies, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Malawi, Malaysia, Portugal, Russia, Siberia, South Africa, Spain, Taiwan, Ukraine, USA Velazquez et al. (2005) reported that the legume endosymbionts contain nod and nif genes responsible for nodule formation and nitrogen fixation, respectively, whereas the pathogenic strains carry vir genes responsible for the formation of tumors or hairy roots. Also, reported for the first time that the occurrence of two rhizobial strains belonging to R. rhizogenes was able to induce hairy roots or tumors in plants and nodulate P. vulgaris under natural conditions. Symbiotic plasmids (psym) containing nod and nif genes and pti- or pri-type plasmids containing vir genes 80

84 Arbutus unedo, Ardisia crispa, Armoracia rusticana, Artemisia spp., Asclepias curassavica, A. syriaca, Asparagus densiflorus, A. officinalis, A. setaceus, Aster spp., A. amellus, Atropa belladonna, Begonia spp., Bellis perennis, Benincasa hispida, Beta vulgaris var. altissima, Betula spp., B. pendula, Borago officinalis, Brassica spp., B. napus var. napus, B. nigra, B. oleracea, B. oleracea var. subvar. cymosa, B. rapa subsp. rapa, Bryophyllum pinnatum, Cajanus were found in these strains. Detected by PCR (Aida et al., 2004). Wide diversity has been reported among strains from various plant hosts, planting sites and even the same gall. Variability exists between strains from the same tumour also. 81

85 cajan, Calendula spp., Callistephus chinensis, Calocedrus decurrens, Calotropis procera, Calystegia sepium, Camellia japonica, C. sinensis, Campanula pyramidalis, Canavalia ensiformis, Cannabis sativa, Capsicum annuum, Caragana arborescens, Carthamus tinctorius, Carya illinoinensis, Castanea dentata, C. sativa, Catharanthus roseus, Ceanothus spp., Celtis occidentalis, Centaurea cyanus, Cerasus vulgaris, Chaenomeles japonica, 82

86 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, Chenopodium album, C. giganteum, Chimonanthus praecox, Chrysanthemum coronarium, C. frutescens, Cichorium spp., Cirsium arvense, Citrullus lanatus, Citrus aurantium, C. limetta, C. limon, C. maxima, C. sinensis, Citrus x paradisi, Clematis spp., Codiaeum variegatum, Coleus blumei, Conium maculatum, Corchorus capsularis, Coriandrum sativum, Cornus florida, Corylus avellana, Cosmos 83

87 bipinnatus, Crataegus spp., Cucumis melo, C. sativus, Cucurbita maxima, C. pepo, Cunninghamia lanceolata, Cupressus macrocarpa, Cydonia oblonga, Cynara scolymus, Dahlia pinnata, Daphne mezereum, Datura innoxia, D. metel, D. stramonium, Daucus carota, Delonix regia, Dianthus barbatus, D. caryophyllus, Digitalis purpurea, Dioscorea spp., D. alata, Diospyros kaki, D. lotus, Elaeagnus angustifolia, Episcia dianthiflora, Epilobium 84

88 hirsutum, Eriobotrya japonica, Erodium cicutarium, Erysimum cheiri, Eucalyptus citriodora, Euonymus fortunei, Euphorbia helioscopia, E. marginata, E. pulcherrima, Ficus carica, F. elastica, Foeniculum vulgare, Forsythia intermedia, F. suspensa, Fragaria vesca, Fraxinus spp., F. americana, Fuchsia magellanica, Galinsoga parviflora, Gardenia spp., Geranium carolinianum, Glycine max, Gossypium 85

89 hirsutum, Gypsophila paniculata, Hatiora gaertneri, Helianthus annuus, H. tuberosus, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Humulus lupulus, Hydrangea spp., Ilex aquifolium, Impatiens balsamina, Ipomoea batatas, Juglans cinerea, J. nigra, J. regia, Juniperus chinensis, J. virginiana, Kalanchoe spp., K. blossfeldiana, Kerria japonica, Lactuca sativa, Lantana camara, Larix spp., Lathyrus L. odoratus, L. sativus, Lespedeza spp., Lens culinaris 86

90 subsp. culinaris, Leucanthemum vulgare, Ligustrum spp., Linum usitatissimum, Lonicera periclymenum, L. tatarica, Lupinus spp., Lycium spp., Lythrum salicaria, Macadamia ternifolia, Maclura pomifera, Malva spp., Mangifera indica, Manihot esculenta, Medicago sativa, Momordica balsamina, Morus alba, M. nigra, Musa x paradisiaca, Myoporum spp., Myosotis spp., Nerium oleander, Nicandra physaloides, Nicotiana alata, N. glauca, N. rustica, 87

91 N. tabacum, Oenothera biennis, Pachysandra terminalis, Paeonia lactiflora, P. officinalis, Parthenocissus spp., P. quinquefolia, P. tricuspidata, Passiflora spp., Pastinaca sativa, Pelargonium spp., P. grandiflorum, P. graveolens, Penstemon hybrida, Pericallis cruenta, Persea americana, Petroselinum crispum, Petunia hybrida, Phaseolus lunatus,p. vulgaris, Philadelphus spp., Philodendron spp., Phlox spp., P. drummondii, P. paniculata, Pinus spp., Piper spp., Pisum spp., 88

92 P. sativum, Platycladus orientalis, Populus spp., P. alba, P. balsamifera, P. canescens, P. deltoides, Primula obconica, Prosopis chilensis, P. juliflora, Prunus spp., P. americana, P. amygdalus, Prunus angustifolia, P. armeniaca, P. avium, P. cerasifera, P. domestica, P. mume, P. nigra, P. persica, P. salicina, P. serotina, P. serrulata, P. spinosa, P. tomentosa, P. umbellata, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Punica granatum, 89

93 Pyracantha coccinea, Pyrus spp., P. communis, Raphanus sativus, Rheum hybridum, Rhododendron spp., Ribes nigrum spp., R. rubrum, Ricinus communis, Rosa centifolia, R. chinensis, R. multiflora, R. rugosa, Rosmarinus officinalis, Rubus spp., R. idaeus, R. loganobaccus, R. occidentalis, Rosa spp., Rudbeckia laciniata, Ruta graveolens, Saintpaulia ionantha, Salix spp., S. alba, S. babylonica, S. caprea, Salvia officinalis, Scabiosa atropurpurea, 90

94 Schinus molle, Sciadopitys verticillata, Scorzonera hispanica, Sechium edule, Sedum spp., S. sieboldii, S. spectabile, Sequoia sempervirens, Sesamum indicum, Sinapis alba, Solanum spp., S. laciniatum, S. lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. melongena, S. nigrum, S. tuberosum, Solidago canadensis, Sorbus americana, Spiraea vanhouttei, Stapelia spp., Symphoricarpos albus, Syringa spp., S. vulgaris, Tagetes erecta, T. patula, Tanacetum 91

95 coccineum, Taraxacum officinale, Taxus baccata, T. brevifolia, T. media, Theobroma cacao, Thuja occidentalis, T. plicata, Tilia platyphyllos, Torreya californica, Tragopogon porrifolius, Trifolium pratense, T. repens, Tropaeolum majus, Ulmus americana, U. glabra, U. pumila, Urtica urens, Vaccinium spp., Valeriana officinalis, Viburnum spp., Vicia faba, V. sativa, V. Villosa, Vigna radiata, Vinca major, V. minor, Vitis labrusca, 92

96 V. vinifera, Wisteria sinensis, Xanthium strumarium, Zinnia elegans 65. *Xanthomonas campestris pv. cannabis Severin Bacterial leaf spot of hemp Seed, plant debris Cannabis sativa, Cucumis sativus, Glycine max, Humulus lupulus, Morus spp., Nicotiana tabacum, Phaseolus vulgaris Japan, Korea, Romania Overwinters in crop refuge and infected seeds (McPartland et al., 2000). It is a regulated quarantine pest in New Zealand. Hot water treatment either at 50 0 C for 30 mins. or at 60 0 C for 10 mins. has been recommended ( ty.govt.nz/files/biosec /consult/ihs-cannabisss-draft.pdf). Viruses 66. ø Arabis mosaic virus (ArMV) Family: Secoviridae Forsythia yellow net, hop bare-bine Seed, nematode (Xiphinema bakeri, Alstroemeria sp., Anagallis arvensis, Apium graveolens, Arabis sp., Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Czech Republic, Transmitted by seed in 20 species of 14 families and causes up to 100% infection 93

97 Genus: Nepovirus X. diversicaudatum, X. coxi) (Murant, 1985) A. hirsute, Armoracia rusticana, Asparagus officinalis, Astilbe sp., Bellis perennis, Beta vulgaris var. altissima, Buxus sempervirens, Capsella bursapastoris, Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, Chenopodium album, C. quinoa, Cucumis sativus, Cucurbita pepo, Cyphomandra betacea, Daphne mezereum, Daucus carota, Delphinium sp., Dianthus caryophyllus, Euonymus europaeus, Forsythia intermedia, Fragaria vesca, Fraxinus excelsior, Glycine max, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, India (Palampur, Himachal Pradesh on rose and not on soybean), Ireland, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Moldova, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, South Africa, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, UK, Yugoslavia (erstwhile). (Murant, 1985). Seed transmission up to 12% was reported in G. max (Richardson, 1990). Seed transmission rates of 2, 13 and % were reported in tomato, beet and lettuce, respectively (Murant, 1983). Most of the isolates of ArMV are indistinguishable serologically, but those from hop and one from barley in Switzerland are distinguishable from the type strain. (Jones et al., 1989). Causes yield losses up to 75% (Summit plant laboratories, 2010). Reported on rose from Himachal Pradesh but not 94

98 Hedera helix, Hordeum vulgare, Humulus lupulus, Jasminum officinale, Lactuca sativa, Lamium amplexicaule, Ligustrum vulgare, Melilotus officinalis, Mentha arvensis, Myosotis arvensis, Narcissus sp., Nicotiana clevelandii, N. rustica, N. xanthi, Petunia hybrida, P. violacea, Phaseolus coccineus, Plantago lanceolata, P. major, Poa annua, Polygonum aviculare, P. persicaria, Prunus avium, P. domestica, P. persica, Ranunculus repens, reported on grain legumes including soybean in India, hence it is of quarantine significance. 95

99 Rheum hybridum, R. rhaponticum, Ribes nigrum, Rosa spp., Rubus idaeus, R. hedycarpus subsp. procerus, Sambucus nigra, Senecio vulgaris, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S.nigrum, Stellaria media, Syringa vulgaris, Taraxacum officinale, Trifolium repens, Tulipa spp., Urtica dioica, U. urens and Vitis vinifera (CAB International, 2007; Murant, 1985; Richardson, 1990) 96

100 67. * Bean mild mosaic virus (BMMV) Family: Tombusviridae Genus: Carmovirus Bean mild mosaic Seed, beetles (Cerotoma ruficornis, Diabrotica balteata, Epilachna varivestis, Gynandrobrotica variabilis) Glycine max, Phaseolus acutifolius, P. vulgaris (Waterworth, 1981) Colombia, El Salvador, Russia (Karasev et al., 1989 Waterworth; 1981) Seed transmission up to 6% was reported in P. vulgaris (Kumar et al., 1994). The virus is extremely infectious in legumes and spreads uncontrollably among beans in the greenhouse, often without inciting symptoms. After an acquisition access time of 18 h, D. undecimpunctata howardi can transmit the virus for at least 30 h after removal from virus-infected plants (Waterworth, 1981). 68. * Bean pod mottle virus (BPMV) Family: Secoviridae Genus: Comovirus Bean pod mottle, pod mottle of bean Seed, beetles (Cerotoma trifurcata, the main vector of the virus and other beetles Glycine max, Desmodium paniculatum, Lespedeza striata, Mucuna pruriens var. utilis, Phaseolus vulgaris, Brazil, Canada, Ecuador, Iran, Peru, USA Seed-transmitted at a rate of to 0.1% in G. max. It causes yield-reductions ranging from 3 to 52.4% and seed coat discolouration. The 97

101 Colaspis flavida, C. late, Diabrotica balteata, D. undecimpunctata howardii, D. virgifera virgifera Epicauta vittata, Epilachna varivestis, Popillia japonica), soybean leafminer (Odontota horni), grafts (CAB International, 2007; Fulton, 1985; Werner et al., 2002) Trifolium incarnatum, Vigna unguiculata deleterious effects of BPMV infection are not limited to seed yield but extend to seed quality, because it predisposes soybean seeds to Phomopsis spp. infection, a major cause of poor seed quality in soybean. More than 90% seed samples harvested from BPMV-infected field plots in the US, showed mottling. Combined infection of BPMV and Soybean mosaic virus (SMV) reduces yield by 66%. Seed coat mottling and dark pigments have often been problematic for soybean farmers and industry as it reduces consumer acceptance (Ziems et al., 2001; Giesler et al., 2002). Two distinct 98

102 subgroups of BPMV strains (subgroups I and II) as well as reassortants between the two subgroups have been reported (Giesler et al., 2002). 69. *# Broad bean stain virus (BBSV) Family: Secoviridae Genus: Comovirus Broad bean stain Seed, weevils (Apion arrogans, A. vorax, Sitona sp., S. crinita, S. limosus, S. lineatus), pollen (Gibbs, 1987; PaDIL - Plant Biosecurity Toolbox, 2011) Cicer arietinum, Glycine max, Lathyrus sp. (L. odaratus), Lens culinaris subsp. culinaris, Macrotyloma axillare, Melilotus albus, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Spinacia oleracea, Trifolium hybridum, T. incarnatum, Vicia faba, V. palaestina, V. sativa, V. faba, Vigna unguiculata (CAB International, 2007; PaDIL - Plant Africa (as a whole), Austria, Australia, China, Czech Republic, Egypt, Ethiopia, Germany, Hungary, Iran, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Poland, Slovakia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, UK, USSR (erstwhile) (CAB International, 2007; PaDIL - Plant Biosecurity Toolbox, 2011) Seed transmission rates of BBSV can be very high, up to 20% in V. faba (Mali et al., 2003, Edwardson and Christie, 1991), 50% in P. sativum (Fiedorow et al., 2002) and 27% in L. culinaris (Kumari et al., 1993; Al-Khalaf et al., 2002). Yield losses can also be high, for example, pre-flowering infection in some lentils led to a 77.4% seed yield loss (Mabrouk and Mansour, 1998). The seeds from infected 99

103 Biosecurity Toolbox, 2011; Fidan and Yorganci, 1990; Edeme and Hanson, 2000) plants are small in size as compared to seeds from uninfected plants. The crinkling and necrotic spots (stains) on soyabean seeds makes them unsaleable. It has a number of different strains, which vary in the severity of symptoms they cause and seed transmission rates (Kumari et al., 1996). 70. * Cherry leaf roll virus (CLRV) Family: Secoviridae Genus: Nepovirus Berteroa ringspot, blackline disease of walnut, dogwood ringspot, elm mosaic, golden elderberry, red elder ringspot, Seed, budwood, grafts, pollen, rooted cuttings Arachis hypogaea, Atriplex hortensis, Betula pendula, Chinopodium quinoa, Cornus florida, Euonymus europaeus, Fagus sylvatica, Fraxinus excelsior, Glycine max, Juglans regia, Lathyrus odoratus, Ligustrum sp., Olea Australia, Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Croatia, Czech Republic, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Seed transmission up to 40% was reported in P. vulgaris (Richardson, 1990). It is seed-borne in many natural and experimental hosts including birch, black cherry and walnut. Seeds from infected walnut trees, stored at 2-5 o C, showed seedtransmission rate of 100

104 sambucus ringspot, sambucus yellow net, Walnut ringspot, walnut black line, walnut yellow vein europaea, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Plantago sp., Pranus serotina, Prunus avium, Ptelea trifoliata, Rubus idaeus R. hedycarpus subsp. procerus, Rumex sp., Sambucus canadensis, S. ebulus, S. nigra, S. racemosa, Syringa vulgaris, Ulmus americana, Vigna unguiculata (CAB International, 2007; Schimanski et al., 1976; Tobias, 1995; Richardson, 1990) Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, UK, USA, Yougoslavia (erstwhile) (CAB International, 2007; Novak and Lanzova, 1981) 62.5% after 45 days and 16.6% after 1 year period. In the presence of other viruses, it renders mature trees nonproductive in two to four years. A wide range of serological variants exist. Isolates from different natural host species are serologically distinguishable from each other whereas most isolates from a single host species are not (Jones, 1976; 1985). Serological variants have been reported from privet (Schmelzer, 1972), dogwood (Walkey et al., 1973), walnut (Savino et al., 1977; Cooper and Edwards, 1980) and American elm. 101

105 71. *Cocoa necrosis virus (CoNV) Family: Comoviridae Genus: Nepovirus Cacao necrosis, cocoa necrosis Seed, nematode (Brunt, 1984) Glycine max, Phaseolus lunatus, P. vulgaris, Theobroma cacao (CAB International, 2007; Kenten, 1977; Richardson, 1990) Colombia, Ghana, Indonesia, Nigeria, Sri Lanka, Venezuela Seed transmission up to 24% was reported in G. max, P. lunatus and P. vulgaris. The Ghana isolate is distinguished from Nigerian isolates by its greater virulence. Many variants have been recorded. Wellknown strains include Bisa, Bosumtwe, Ikiri, Kpeve, Mampong, New Juaben, Nsaba and Offa Igbo (Brunt, 1984; Kenten, 1977). 72. * Cowpea severe mosaic virus (CPSMV) Family: Secoviridae Genus: Comovirus Cowpea severe mosaic Seed, insects (Acalymma vittatum, Ceratoma arcuata, C. ruficornis, C. trifurcata, C. variegata, Chalcodermus bimaculatus, Canavalia ensiformis, Crotalaria juncea, Glycine max, sp., Macroptilium lathyroides, Phaseolus vulgaris, Psophocarpus tetragonolobus, Vigna radiata, V. unguiculata, Brazil, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Peru, Puerto Rico, South Africa, Suriname, Trinidad, Tobago, USA, Venezuela (Jager, 1979; Richardson, 1990) Seed-transmitted up to 10% in V. unguiculata and 8% in V. unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis Incidence up to 100% and 50% reduction in fresh plant weight, number and weight of pods have been 102

106 Diabrotica balteata, D. speciosa, D. undecimpunctata, D. virgifera, Diphaulaca sp., Epilachna varivestis), pollen V. unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis reported in V. unguiculata (Jager, 1979). Isolates from Arkansas, Trinidad and Puerto Rico seem to differ in host range (Shepherd, 1964) or symptomatology and antigenic properties (Thongmeearkom and Goodman, 1978). Therefore, represent distinct strains (Jager, 1979). 73. ø Grapevine fan leaf virus (GFLV) Family: Secoviridae Genus: Nepovirus Grapevine vein banding, grapevine yellow mosaic Seed, nematodes (Xiphinema index, X. italiae), grafts, pollen Aristolochia clematitis, Chenopodium amaranticolor, C. quinoa, Glycine max, Sonchus oleraceus, Vitis vinifera (CAB International, 2007; Richardson, 1990) Albania, Algeria, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), Egypt, France, Germany, Seed transmission was reported in C. amaranticolor, C. quinoa and G. max. Fanleaf strain, yellow mosaic strain and veinbanding strain have been reported (ICTV db Management, 2006). Australia, Hungary, 103

107 Greece, Hungary, India (not on grain legumes including soybean), Iran, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Macedonia, Madagascar, Malta, Mexico, Moldova, Morocco, New Zealand, Nigeria, Philippines, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine, USA, Venezuela Israel, former Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), Tunisia, Turkey and the USA have declared quarantine for GFLV (Walter, 1993). Yield reductions in grapevine in the range of 12-98% have been reported in different countries viz., Chile, Italy, France, Germany and Switzerland. Reported in India on grapes, but not on grain legumes including soybean. The strain infecting grain legumes is not known to occur in India, hence it is of quarantine significance. 104

108 74. *Mulberry ringspot virus (MRSV) Family: Secoviridae Genus: Nepovirus Mulberry ringspot Seed, nematode (Longidorus martini) (Brunt and Tsuchizaki, 1987) Glycine max, Morus alba Japan Seed transmission up to 10% was reported in G. max. Symptoms persist and vary seasonally (Brunt and Tsuchizaki, 1987). 75. *# Pea enation mosaic virus (PEMV) Family: Luteoviridae Genus: Enamovirus Pea enation mosaic Seed, aphids (Acyrthosiph on pisum, A. solani, Aphis gossypii, Aulacorthum solani, Macrosiphum avenae, M. euphorbiae, Myzus ornatus, M. persicae, Rhopalosiphum padi, Schizaphis graminum) (Peters, 1982) Anthyllis, Astragalus, Chenopodium quinoa, C. amaranticolor, C. album, Canavalia gladiata, Cicer spp., Gomphrena globosa, Glycine max, Lathyrus odoratus, Lens culinaris subsp. culinaris, Lotus sp., Lupinus albus, Medicago sp., Melilotus sp., Nicotiana benthamiana, N. clevelandii, N. tabacum, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Czekhoslovakia (erstwhile); Egypt, Germany, Iran, Lebanon, Morocco, Poland, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, UK, USA, USSR (erstwhile), Yugoslavia (erstwhile) (CAB International, 2007; Cockbain, 1983; Jurik and Musil, 1989; Richardson, 1990; Makkouk et al., 1988; Makkouk et al., 2002) Seed-transmissible (1.5%) in P. sativum (Richardson, 1990). The virus-infected L. albus and V. faba plants produced fewer root nodules, and decreased mass by 60-70%. The root nodules of virusinfected plants lost their capacity for nitrogen fixation at an earlier date (Blaszczak et al., 1974). Several PEMV isolates have been distinguished on the basis of differences in 105

109 Phaseolus spp., Pisum sativum, Trifolium sp., Vicia spp., V. faba (CAB International 2007; Blaszczak et al., 1974; Jurik and Musil, 1989) aphid transmissibility and electrophoretic mobility (Demler et al., 1996). Sequence variability in PEMV-1 and in PEMV-2 resulting in alterations in aphid transmissibility and systemic movement account for the complexity of strain interactions (Peters, 1982). 76. *# Peanut stunt virus (PSV) Family: Bromoviridae Genus: Cucumovirus Groundnut stunt, peanut stunt, robinia mosaic Seed, aphids (Aphis craccivora, A. spiraecola, Myzus persicae), dodder Apium graveolens, Arachis hypogaea, Coronilla varia, Datura stramonium, Glycine max, Lupinus albus, L. luteus, Medicago sativa, Nicotiana tabacum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Solanum lycopersicon, China, France, Georgia, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Korea, (DPR), Korea (Republic), Morocco, Poland, Spain, Sudan, USA Seed transmissions of 13-18% in G. max (Lizuka and Yoshida, 1988) 0.1% in A. hypogaea (Kumar et al., 1994) have been reported. Two major strains viz., Eastern strain and Western strain have been reported which differ in host range, serological 106

110 Tephrosia sp., Trifolium hybridum, T. incarnatum, T. pratense, T. repens, T. subterraneum, T. vesiculosum, Vicia faba, Vigna angularis, V. unguiculata relationships particle stability. and 77. * Raspberry ringspot virus (RpRSV) Family: Secoviridae Genus: Nepovirus Cherry rasp leaf, European rasp leaf of cherry, leaf distortion of gooseberr y, raspberry Lloyd George yellow blotch, ringspot disease of Seed, nematodes (Longidorus elongatus, L. macrosoma), pollen Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus, Daphne sp., Forsythia sp., Fragaria ananassa, Glycine max, Ligustrum vulgare, Narcissus sp., Phlox sp., Prunus avium, Ribes sp., Rubus idaeus, Sambucus nigra, Vitis vinifera, Weigela sp. (CAB International, 2007; Richardson, 1990) Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), Czech Republic, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Kazakhstan, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, UK, USA, Seed-transmitted in G. max (Richardson, 1990). Many serological variants of RpRSV are known and isolates differing considerably in host range and symptomatology were also reported. Isolates that have been most studied belong to two serotypes, viz., Scottish and English (Brunt, 1992). 107

111 flowering currant, ringspot disease of raspberry, ringspot disease of redcurrant, ringspot disease of strawberry, ringspot of raspberry, spoonleaf of red currant USSR (erstwhile), Yugoslavia (erstwhile) (CAB International, 2007; Brunt, 1992) 78. Tomato black ring virus (TBRV) Family: Secoviridae Genus: Nepovirus Black ring of tomato, bouquet of potato, pseudoaucuba of potato, ring spot of bean, ring spot of beet, Seed, nematodes (Longidorus attenuatus, L. elongatus), pollen Allium ampeloprasum, A. cepa, Apium graveolens, Beta vulgaris var. altissima, Brassica napus var. napobrassica, B. rapa subsp. rapa, Cajanus cajan, Capsicum sp., Albania, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), Croatia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, India (not on grain legumes including soybean) Ireland, Italy, Japan, Seed transmission is reported in at least 24 species in 15 families. In many hosts >10%, and in some 100% of progeny seedlings were infected (Murant, 1970). Seed transmission up to 25% was reported 108

112 ring spot of lettuce, yellow vein of celery Capsella bursapastoris, Cucumis sativus, Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus, Forsythia intermedia, Fragaria ananassa, Gladiolus sp., Glycine max, Lactuca sativa, Lamium amplexicaule, Ligustrum vulgare, Narcissus, Phaseolus vulgaris, Prunus persica, Ribes sanguineum, Robinia pseudoacacia, Rubus ideaus, Sambucus nigra, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. melongena, S. tuberosum, Syringa vulgaris, Vigna radiata, Moldova, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, UK, Yugoslavia (erstwhile) (CAB International, 2007; Stobbs and Schagen, 1984) in C. cajan, 24% in P. vulgaris, 67.5% in V. radiata and 87.5% in V. unguiculata (Richardson, 1990). Total losses were estimated at 20% on Asparagus in infection with other viruses (Weissenfels et al., 1976). The best known strains are beet ringspot strain, celery, yellow vein strain, tomato black ring strain (type strain), lettuce ringspot strain, potato bouquet strain of Köhler and potato pseudo-aucuba strain of Köhler (Murant, 1970). Reported in India but not on grain legumes including soybean. The strain infecting 109

113 V. unguiculata, Vitis vinifera (Stobbs and Schagen, 1984: Blaszczak and Pospieszny, 1987; Richardson, 1990; Smrcka and Baburek, 1992) grain legumes is not known to occur in India, hence it is of quarantine significance. 79. * Tomato ringspot virus (ToRSV) Family: Secoviridae Genus: Nepovirus Apple union necrosis, chlorosis of pelargoniu m, grapevine yellow vein, peach yellow bud mosaic, prunus stem pitting, redcurrant Seed, nematodes (Xiphinema americanum, X. californicum, X. rivesi), grafts, pollen Capsicum spp., Cerasus vulgaris, Cornus floride, Gladiolus sp., Glycine max, Fragaria chiloensis, Hydrangea sp., Lotus corniculatus, Malus domestica, Nicotiana tabacum, Pelargonium sp., Prunus armeniaca, P. avium, P. domestica, P. persica, Ribes sp., Rubus idaeus, R. hedycarpus Argentina, Australia, Belarus, Canada, Chile, China, Croatia, Cyprus, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Iran, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Korea (Republic), Lithuania, Mexico, New Zealand, Oman, Pakistan, Peru, Puerto Rico, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia, Tunisia, Turkey, UK, USA, Varying degrees of seed transmission have been reported in soyabean (76%), geranium (6.9%), red clover (7%), strawberry, raspberry, pelargonium, and dandelion (Scarborough and Smith, 1975; Stace- Smith, 1984, 1987). Widespread in perennial plant species and causes severe decline in productivity in North 110

114 chlorosis mosaic, ringspot of tomato, yellow blotch curl of raspberry, yellow bud mosaic of peach, yellow vein of grapevine subsp. procerus, Sambucus sp., Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), Taraxacum officinale, Trifolium pratense Vaccinium corymbosum, Vitis vinifera Venezuela, Yugoslavia (erstwhile) America. The virus is prevalent in dandelion and other weeds (Powell et al., 1982), and may be disseminated over considerable distances in wind-blown seeds of infected dandelion (Rosenberger et al., 1983). In studies on raspberries, 10-80% of raspberry canes were partially or completely killed in three years after becoming infected (Freeman and Stace- Smith, 1968). Converse and Stace- Smith (1971) observed that fruit from infected canes weighed 21% less than normal fruit and the yield of diseased plants was reduced by >50%. Four strains viz., 111

115 tobacco strain, grape yellow vein strain, apple union necrosis nepovirus and euonymus chlorotic ringspot virus have been reported (Stace- Smith, 1987). Weeds 80. *Abutilon theophrasti Medic. Synonyms Abutilon avicennae Gaertn. Sida abutilon L. China jute, Chinese velvet leaf, lantern, velvet leaf Seed as contamination Allium cepa, Beta vulgaris, Brassica oleracea var. capitata, B. rapa subsp. rapa, Citrus spp., Glycine max, Gossypium hirsutum, Helianthus annuus, Hordeum vulgare, Pennisetum glaucum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), S. tuberosum, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Croatia, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan, Korea (Republic), Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, UK, USA, Yugoslavia (erstwhile) Causes severe crop loss in maize, soybean and cotton. In USA, it is listed as a noxious weed in the state of Colorado, a secondary noxious weed in Iowa and Minnesota, a 'B' designated weed in Oregon and a class A noxious weed in Washington state. 112

116 Sorghum bicolor, Triticum aestivum, Zea mays 81. *Alectra vogelii Benth. Synonyms Alextra angustifolia Engl. A. merkeri Engl., A. scharensis Engl. Cowpea witchweed, vogel alectra, yellow witchweed Seed as contamination Acanthospermum hispidum, Arachis hypogaea, Glycine max, Lablab purpureus, Mucuna pruriens, Phaseolus acutifolius, P. coccineus, P. vulgaris, Vigna radiata, V. subterranean, V. unguiculata Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Congo, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, Switzerland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe Serious constraint to the production of cowpea, groundnut and soybean in the semi-arid savannahs of sub-saharan Africa. Yield losses of 20% were reported in cowpea from Kenya in the 1920s with total crop loss in the 1980s (Bagnall-Oakeley et al., 1991). It is also a constraint to common bean production in the Blantyre Shire Highlands of Malawi (Riches, 2001). Prohibited as a noxious weed in USA (USDA-APHIS, 113

117 2003). 82. *Amaranthus blitoides S. Wats. Prostrate pigweed, spreading amaranth, Seed as contamination Glycine max, Gossypium hirsutum, Helianthus annuus, Medicago sativa, Olea europaea subsp. europaea, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Solanum lycopersicon (=Lycopersicon esculentum), Triticum aestivum, Zea mays Albania, Australia, Austria, Bulgaria, Canada, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, South Africa, Spain, USA Significant weed in a wide range of crops in USA, Europe and the Middle East. 83. *Amaranthus albus L. Tumble pigweed Seed as contamination Arachis hypogaea, Beta vulgaris, Glycine max, Gossypium hirsutum, Helianthus annuus, Medicago sativa, Olea europaea Albania, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Canada, China, Colombia, Cyprus, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), France, Holm et al. (1979) listed A. albus as a 'principal' weed in Portugal and Mexico. It is also listed as a significant weed in a wide range of crops in USA, Spain, 114

118 subsp. europaea, Solanum tuberosum, Zea mays Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine, Uruguay, USA Hungary, Turkey and Ukraine. 84. *#Ambrosia trifida L. Giant ragweed, great ragweed Seed as contamination Glycine max, Phaseolus sp., Zea mays Canada, China, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Korea (Republic), Lithuania, Mexico, Poland, Russia, Slovakia, Ukraine, UK, USA Weed of cultivated agri-horticultural crops. Causes decrease in the number of plantparasitic nematodes found in soybean fields (Wang et al., 1998). 85. *Digitaria velutina (Forssk.) P. Beauv. Velvet fingergrass Seed as contamination Arachis hypogaea, Eragrostis tef, Glycine max, Triticum aestivum, Zea mays Botswana, Congo, Costa Rica, Ethiopia, Guatemala, Kenya, Mexico, Mozambique, Senegal, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, It is a burden to farmers who, typically, spend 50% of their working time removing weeds from crops. There is a risk of introduction of this weed as a 115

119 USA, Zambia, Zimbabwe contaminant in grains or livestock fodder. 86. *Galium aparine L. Cleavers Seed as contamination Avena sativa, Beta vulgaris, Brassica napus, Glycine max, Gossypium spp., Hordeum vulgare, Linum usitatissimum, Medicago sativa, Oryza sativa, Secale cereale, Solanum tuberosum, Triticum aestivum, Vitis vinifera Afghanistan, Australia, Belgium, Canada, China, Ethiopia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Hungary, Iceland, Israel, Japan, Korea, New Zealand,Norway, Pakistan Poland, Portugal, Russia,Spain, Sweden, Tunisia, Turkey, UK, USA It may be confused with G. spurium which is closely related to it. 87. *#Helianthus ciliaris Dc. Texas blueweed Seed, rhizome Glycine max, Juglans regia, Sorghum bicolor, Triticum aestivum, Vitis vinifera Australia, Mexico, USA Cited as the 'worst weed in West Texas', where it affects many different crops and also occurs in noncrop situations. 116

120 88. *Ischaemum timorense Kunth. Centipede grass Seed, fragments Allium cepa, Arachis hypogaea, Glycine max, Saccharum officinarum Cameroon, French Polynesia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea Its economic impact on crops is not clear. It has been found in immature areas of rubber and oil palm. 89. *Lolium multiflorum Lam. Synonym Lolium italicum A. Braun Annual ryegrass, Italian ryegrass, westerwold ryegrass Seed as contamination Avena sativa, Beta vulgaris, Brassica napus var. napus, B. oleracea, Citrus spp., Glycine max, Hordeum vulgare, Lactuca sativa, Linum usitatissimum, Lupinus angustifolius, Medicago sativa, Pisum sativum, Prunus domestica, Saccharum officinarum, Secale cereale, Solanum tuberosum, Spinacia oleracea, Triticale, Triticum aestivum, Vitis vinifera Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Ethiopia, Fiji, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kenya, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Spain, Suriname, Highly competitive and capable of producing large quantities of seed. Causes severe yield losses in wheat. Every additional 10 plants/ m² of L. multiflorum reduced wheat yield by Kg/ ha (Pedreros, 2001). Biotypes of L. multiflorum with evolved resistance to herbicides have been reported in Brazil, Chile, France, Italy, UK and USA (Heap, 2003). 117

121 Switzerland, Tunisia, Turkey, UK, Uruguay, USA, Zimbabwe, Yugoslavia (erstwhile) 90. *Polygonum lapathifolium L. Synonyms Persicaria lapathifolia (L.) Gray, P. nodosum Pers., Polygonum andrzejowskianum Klokov., P. brittingeri Opiz, P. hypanicum Klokov, P. incanum F. W. Schmidt, P. linicola Sutulov, P. nodosum Pers., P. paniculatum Andrz., P. scabrum Moench, P. tomentosum Schrank, P. zaporoviense Klokov Pale persicaria, pale smartweed, white smartweed Seed as contamination Allium cepa, Apium graveolens, Avena sativa, Beta vulgaris var altissima, Brassica spp., B. napus var. napus, Daucus carota, Glycine max, Helianthus annuus, Hordeum, Linum, Medicago sativa, Ornithopus sativus, Oryza sativa, Pisum sp., Solanum tuberosum, Triticum aestivum, Vitis vinifera, Zea mays Afghanistan, Albania, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Korea (DPR), Korea (Republic), Lebanon, Lithuania, Morocco, Netherlands, New Potentially a damaging weed in any spring-sown crop where it occurs. It hosts a number of damaging pests e.g., beet western yellows virus and Potato leaf roll virus in British Columbia, Canada (Ellis, 1992). 118

122 Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Thailand, Tunisia, UK, USA 91. *Polygonum persicaria L. Synonyms Persicaria dolichopoda (Ochi) Sasaki P. maculata (Raf.) S.F. Gray, P. maculosa S.F. Gray, P. mitis Delarbre, P. persicaria (L.) Small, P. ruderalis (Salisb.) C.F. Reed, P. vulgaris Webb & Moq., Polygonum dubium Stein, P. fusiforme Greene, P. minus auct. Non Lady s thumb, ladysthumb, Redshank Allium cepa, Beta vulgaris, Brassica rapa, Daucus carota, Glycine max, Helianthus annuus, Hordeum vulgare, Medicago sativa, Nicotiana tabacum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Pisum sativum, Solanum tuberosum, Triticum aestivum, Zea mays Afghanistan, Albania, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Belarus, Belgium, Bhutan, Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Kenya, Latvia, Lithuania, Mexico, Moldova, Nepal, Seed as contamination Serious weed of cultivated agrihorticultural crops. Considered as a weed of 35 crops in 50 countries (Holm et al., 1997). Seeds remain viable in soil for 45 years (Salisbury, 1961). State of Minnesota in the USA has declared P. persicaria as a secondary noxious weed and several states have 119

123 Huds., P. puritanorum Fern., P. vulgaris Samp. Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia and Montenegro, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda, Ukraine, UK, USA categorized it as invasive (USDA- NRCS, 2002). 92. *Raphanus raphanistrum L. Synonyms Raphanus landra Moretti ex DC. R. segetum Clav. Charlock, jointed charlock, jointed radish, runch, white charlock, wild radish, wild turnip Seed as contamination Allium cepa, Avena sativa, Beta vulgaris, Brassica napus var. napus, Coffea sp., Daucus carota, Fragaria ananassa, Glycine max, Gossypium spp., Helianthus annuus, Hordeum vulgare, Linum usitatissimum, Lupinus sp., Medicago sativa, Nicotiana tabacum, Olea europaea subsp. europaea, Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Estonia, Ethiopia, Finland, It is classified as a serious weed in nine countries and a principal weed in 14 countries (Holm et al., 1991). Longevity of R. raphanistrum seed is increased by burial in the soil (Piggin et al., 1978). Kurth (1967) in Germany reported that seeds could remain viable for 15 to 20 years in the soil. 120

124 Pisum sativum, Saccharum officinarum, Solanum tuberosum, Triticum aestivum, Vitis vinifera, Zea mays France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kenya, Latvia, Lebanon, Libya, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, Moldova, Morocco, Mozambique, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Paraguay, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Ukraine, UK, Uruguay, USA, Zimbabwe, Yugoslavia (erstwhile) Cheam and Code, (1995) reported that 25 wild radish plants/ m 2 reduced wheat yield by 7-11%, but yield reduction increased to 25-33% when its density was 100 plants/ m

125 93. *Richardia brasiliensis Gomes Synonyms Richardia pilosa Ruia & Pav., R. rosea (St Hil.) Schult., Richardsonia brasiliensis (Gomez) Hayne, R. emetica Mart.R. rosea St Hil., R. scabra St Hil., Spermacoce hexandra A. Rich. Mexican clover, Mexican richardia, tropical richardia, white-eye Seed as contamination Allium cepa, Arachis hypogaea, Cajanus cajan, Camellia sinensis, Capsicum annuum, Carya illinoinensis, Cinchona officinalis, Citrullus lanatus, Citrus spp., Coffea arabica, Glycine max, Gossypium spp., Helianthus annuus, Hevea brasiliensis, Ipomoea batatas, Lycopersicon esculentum, Malus domestica, Medicago sativa, Nicotiana tabacum, Oryza sativa, Phaseolus vulgaris, Philodendron sp., Prunus persica, P. salicina, Saccharum officinarum, Solanum tuberosum, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Cuba, Ghana, Indonesia, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nigeria, South Africa, Swaziland, Thailand, USA, Zambia, Zimbabwe onsidered as crop seed contaminant in South Africa. Nuisance in lawns and gardens, and has also invaded and replaced native vegetation in South Africa (Wells et al., 1986). 122

126 Sorghum bicolor, Stylosanthes gracile, Vitis vinifera, Zea mays 94. *Setaria faberi Herrm. Giant foxtail Seed as contamination Glycine max, Medicago sativa, Solanum tuberosum, Zea mays Belarus, Canada, China, Czech Republic, France, Japan, Korea (Republic), Russia, Spain, USA It is most likely to be confused with large forms of S. viridis (vars. major, robustapurpurea and robustaalba) but S. faberi has larger spikelets (over 2.5 mm), more bristles and softly hairy rather than scabrous leaf surfaces. 95. * Thlaspi arvense L. Bastard cress, fanweed, field pennycress, pennycress, stinkweed, THLAR Seed as contamination Allium cepa, A. porrum, Asparagus officinalis, Avena sativa, Beta vulgaris, Brassica napus var. napus, Carthamus tinctorius, Cicer arietinum, Daucus carota, Glycine Afghanistan, Albania, Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bhutan, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Colombia, Czechoslovakia (erstwhile), Denmark, Estonia, Considered as a weed of 30 crops in 45 countries (Holm et al., 1997). It is classified as a serious or principal weed in 12 countries (Holm et al., 1991). Prolific seed producer, capable of 123

127 max, Gossypium, Helianthus annuus, Hordeum vulgare, Lens culinaris subsp. culinaris, Linum usitatissimum, Medicago sativa, Oryza sativa, Pisum sativum, Solanum tuberosum, Triticum aestivum, Vicia faba, Zea mays Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Iran, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Korea (DPR), Korea (Republic), Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lebanon, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mongolia, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tajikistan, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, UK, USA, Yugoslavia (erstwhile) building up large reserves of seed in the soil and exhibits longterm dormancy. In Canada, it has been shown that a light infestation can reduce wheat yields by 35% and a heavy infestation by 50% (Best and McIntyre, 1975). 124

128 96. *Urochloa plantaginea (Link) RD Webster Synonyms Brachiaria plantaginea Link, Panicum distans. Salzm. & Doell, P. plantagineum Link, Alexander grass, marmalade grass Seed as contamination Citrus spp., Daucus carota, Glycine max, Gossypium, Helianthus annuus, Lactuca sativa, Oryza sativa, Phaseolus spp., Prunus domestica, Saccharum officinarum, Zea mays Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, France, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, USA Seed survival under soybean crops in south Brazilian agroecosystems is 11 years with survival decreasing annually by 37% (Voll et al., 1996). In Brazil, uncontrolled weed infestation decreased cotton yields by 94% (Blanco and Oliveira, 1976). *Pest not reported from India # Pest included in Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003 (PQ Order) Pest included in the PQ Order for other crops, not for soybean Pest intercepted during quarantine processing Pest present in India but reported to have many races/ strains, world-over, hence, it is of quarantine significance Ø Pest present in India on other crops but not recorded on grain legumes including soybean in India, hence, it is of quarantine significance Pest present in India but with restricted distribution, hence it is of quarantine significance 125

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146 Glossary Contaminant Endangered area Grain Interception (of a pest) Pathway Pest Pest risk analysis Plant debris Plant quarantine Quarantine Quarantine pest Seed Seed-borne Seedtransmitted Stored products Soil, fungal spores, fruiting bodies, plant debris, live/ dead/ dormant insects/ stages thereof An area where ecological factors favour the establishment of a pest whose presence in the area will result in economically important loss ( A commodity class for seeds intended for processing or consumption and not for planting ( The detection of a pest during inspection or testing of an imported consignment ( Any means that allows the entry or spread of a pest ( Any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal or pathogenic agent injurious to plant or plant products ( The process of evaluating biological or other scientific and economic evidence to determine whether a pest should be regulated and the strength of any phytosanitary measures to be taken against it ( Dried plant parts or pieces thereof other than seed All activities designed to prevent the introduction and/or spread of quarantine pests or to ensure their official control ( Official confinement of regulated articles for observation and research or for further inspection, testing and/or treatment ( A pest of potential economic importance to the area endangered thereby and not yet present there, or present but not widely distributed and being officially controlled ( A commodity class for seeds for planting or intended for planting and not for consumption or processing ( The pest present on, in or along with the seed The pest present in or with the seed and transmitted to the next generation of growing seedlings Stored grain, flour or processed plant products 143

147 Acronyms and Abbreviations ArMV APHIS APPPC AYRSV BMMV BPMV BBSV BCMV CLRV CoNV CPPC CPSMV EMBL EPPO FAO GFLV ICAR IPPC ISPM MRSV NBPGR NPPO OEPP Arabis mosaic virus Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission Artichoke yellow ringspot virus Bean mild mosaic virus Bean pod mottle virus Broad bean stain virus Bean common mosaic virus Cherry leaf roll virus Cocoa necrosis virus Caribbean Plant Protection Commission Cowpea severe mosaic virus European Molecular Biology Laboratory European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization Food and Agriculture Organization Grapevine fan leaf virus Indian Council of Agricultural Research International Plant Protection Convention International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures Mulberry ringspot virus National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources North American Plant Protection Organization Organisation Européenne et Méditerranéenne pour la Protection des 144

148 OIRSA Organismo Internacional Regional de Sanidad Agropecuaria PQ Order Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order 2003 PQP PRA PSV RAPD RFLP RpRSV RPPO TBRV ToRSV USDA WTO Potential Quarantine Pest Pest Risk Analysis Peanut stunt virus Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism Raspberry ringspot virus Regional Plant Protection Organization Tomato black ring virus Tomato ringspot virus United States Department of Agriculture World Trade Organization 145

149 Other Useful References Barnes RF and JB Beard (1992) Glossary of Crop Science Terms. Crop Science Society of America, Wisconsin, USA, 88 p. Crop Protection Compendium, Wallingford, UK: CAB International. Plantwise. Quarantine Information System. Plant International Plant Protection Convention. John HW and Blanca Leon (1999) World Economic Plants: A Standard Reference, CRC Press, 747 p. Metcalf CL and WP Flint (1985) Destructive and Useful Insects their Habits and Control, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd, New Delhi, India, 1087 p. Nayar ER, A Pandey, K Venkateswaran, R Gupta and BS Dhillon (2003) Crop Plants of India A Check-list of Scientific Names. National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, India, 48 p. PaDIL Plant Biosecurity Toolbox. Richardson MJ (1990) An Annotated List of Seed-borne Diseases. 4 th International Seed Testing Association, Switzerland 346 p. Edition, 146

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