Into the Breach. By Lise Hull

Transcription

1 Into the Breach The Marcher Lord in History By Lise Hull

2 Into the Breach: The Marcher Lord in History by Lise Hull Published by Marcher Lord Press 8345 Pepperridge Drive Colorado Springs, CO This book or parts thereof may not be reproduced in any form, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or otherwise without prior written permission of the publisher, except as provided by United States of America copyright law. MARCHER LORD PRESS and the MARCHER LORD PRESS logo are trademarks of Marcher Lord Press. Absence of TM in connection with marks of Marcher Lord Press or other parties does not indicate an absence of trademark protection of those marks. Photos and Maps: Lise Hull Copyright 2008 by Marcher Lord Press All rights reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data An application to register this book for cataloging has been filed with the Library of Congress. International Standard Book Number:

3 Into the Breach The Marcher Lord in History By Lise Hull

4 Other Books by Lise Hull Britain s Medieval Castles The Great Castles of Britain and Ireland Understanding the Castle Ruins of England and Wales

5 Foreword by Jeff Gerke Publisher, Marcher Lord Press When I was young I played a roleplaying game called Dungeons & Dragons. You ve probably heard of it. Back then, when you purchased the starter set you got this game module called A Keep on the Borderlands. The Keep on the Borderlands was a small fortress standing at the very edge of the known world. It was the last bastion of safety and civilization. Beyond it, there was only chaos, an untamed wildland inhabited by monsters, demons, and worse. Brave adventurers like me would travel to the Keep. And then, when they were fully provisioned and feeling a little reckless, they would strike out beyond the safety of the stone walls and go see what trouble they could find. I can t tell you how that simple premise fired my imagination: a fortified stronghold on the edge of the badlands. That idea was very much in my mind when, in 2006, I created a Web page dedicated to a certain kind of Christian fiction. I wanted to celebrate the Christian fiction that was

6 well beyond the boundaries of the safe books being published at the time. I wanted to create, if you will, a keep on the borderlands, a striking-out place for explorations into the unknown. I called it WhereTheMapEnds.com because, in my mind, the most exciting kind of fiction happens not in the wellknown garden paths of the heartland, but out on the fringes, out beyond the place where the last map finally fails. Over the years I have studied medieval history. In my reading I came across a little-known character: the marcher lord. The marcher lord, I learned, maintained the outer perimeter of the realm. He was tasked with patrolling the borderlands to stem any enemy attack and to protect those who lived safely in the interior. He was, in short, the lord of the Keep on the Borderlands. When I decided to go forward with my vision of creating an independent Christian press that would stand on the perimeter of publishing to produce Christian fantasy and science fiction, all of this was in my mind. Marcher Lord Press is the Keep on the Borderlands. It is the place from which brave adventurers can explore and discover, and fight for all that is Good. Enjoy this book, for in it, castles expert Lise Hull explains what it was like to be a marcher lord in history. Jeff Gerke

7 Into the Breach The Marcher Lord in History By Lise Hull Once more unto the breach, dear friends, once more, Or close the wall up with our English dead. In peace there s nothing so becomes a man As modest stillness and humility, But when the blast of war blows in our ears, Then imitate the action of the tiger. Stiffen the sinews, conjure up the blood, Disguise fair nature with hard-favoured rage. William Shakespeare, Henry V, Act 3, Scene 1 Shakespeare was referring to Henry V s approach-ing assault on Harfleur, in France, but the quote equally applies to the development of Marcher lordships on the borders of his beloved England. Marcher lordships were buffer zones between England and Wales and between England and Scotland. They effectively controlled the intrusion of native populations into England from across its borders. And the men who ruled these buffer zones were called Marcher lords. The 1

8 Lise Hull Marcher lord stood in the breach against all attacks to protect the kingdom. The primary means of taking and keeping control of these areas in the decades immediately after the Normans conquered England in 1066 was the castle. Just what is a castle? Most of us visualize sights such as Cinderella s fanciful turreted palace at Disneyland as the archetypal castle. Movies and advertising can reinforce this notion. However, these images can misguide us, so much so that when we see a real castle, particularly when it s ruined, we mistakenly think we have been led in the wrong direction. Castles flourished during the Middle Ages. Some were huge, while others were quite compact. Some were built with earth and timber; others with rubble and imported stone. Most were status symbols, but not necessarily furnished with the flamboyance we have come to associate with these structures. Still, they all shared the same basic purposes: they were the private residences of the upper crust and they ensured dominance over an area and its population by projecting intimidation, wealth, and power. Constructing castles in border regions was meant to keep the locals at bay. This strategy was replayed over and over in medieval Britain and on the European continent. Whenever a kingdom extended its reach into new territory, castles were among the first structures to be built. 2

9 Into the Breach: The Marcher Lord in History Most people easily recognize that royal fortresses such as Windsor, Edinburgh, and the Tower of London, are castles. In fact, these three sites still retain military as well as residential roles and are flamboyant in their own ways. Yet throughout Great Britain castles were built to center lordships, to emphasize the power and grandeur of their owners, and to wield control over the land and its people. Scores of lesser-known castles survive to this day in the British countryside. Among the most important were the castles of the Marcher Lords. A Pocket History of Pre-Conquest Britain From our perspective in the twenty-first century, it s often easy to think of the population of the British Isles as fairly uniform. In the minds of most North Americans, especially, British people are simply British, and things have always been so. But in truth, the population of the British Isles has always been quite diverse. Waves of immigrants established themselves in various parts of the island nation ever since the first prehistoric peoples arrived there well over two thousand years ago. Each of these people groups has left permanent marks on the landscape. Ruins of structures built by Celts, Vikings, Anglo-Saxons, Picts, Britons, Romans, and Scots dot the Isles, even today. These monuments range from modest homesteads and huts to imposing earthwork forts, 3

10 Lise Hull dykes, walls, and substantial stone fortifications. These groups also left their mark in the gene pool that survives to this day in Great Britain. In 1066 Duke William of Normandy brought his army across the English Channel and defeated Harold II, the Anglo-Saxon king of England. When Duke William, the Conqueror now King William I established his new kingdom, his citizenry consisted of three main ethnic groups: the Anglo-Saxons, who populated most of England; the Welsh, whose native princes ruled distinct areas of Wales on the western side of Offa s Dyke; and the Scots, who lived on the northern side of Hadrian s Wall. Conquering the Anglo-Saxons William had his hands full contending with the Saxons. Some submitted to his rule with little opposition but many others continued to resist the imposition of feudalism and Norman subjugation. In order to solidify his new kingdom, William and his men began constructing castles. The first new castles were in southern England, not too far from London, his capitol. He built a few farther away, at important sites in the midlands and the north of England. With these fortresses, William slowly extended his rule into Anglo-Saxon lands. The majority of these castles were simple structures known as motte and bailey or ringwork castles. Built primarily with earth and timber, these strongholds were 4

11 Into the Breach: The Marcher Lord in History unlike any other structure the Anglo-Saxons had seen to that point Not only were these castles easy and fairly inexpensive to construct, they visibly reiterated that the Normans had come as conquerors and that they now occupied lands formerly held by the Saxons. Saxon rebels continued to fight against Norman rule. In 1068 this resistance prompted William to lead his army in a deadly campaign called the Harrying of the North. William and his men ravaged the countryside burning crops, destroying houses, and once and for all squashing Saxon hopes for independence. This done, feudalism was set in place in England. William parcelled out the land to his most important soldiers in exchange for their fealty (loyalty) and military obligation. William and his Normans continued to extend their rule. Wherever the Saxons had held sway, William built castles. These castles ensured domination over the peasantry and provided safe residences for William s knights when they were not in attendance at the king s court in London. The farmlands made money for the kingdom and provided food and other resources. In this way, William s heartland was pacified. But war still loomed in the West and North. For while the Saxons were now conquered, the Welsh and Scots were not. 5

12 Lise Hull The Welsh Marches Subduing the rest of Britain would not be as simple for King William. The borderlands that separated England from Wales and England from Scotland remained fraught with danger and prone to sudden rebellion. William set up an entirely different system of government to manage these frontier regions. These borderlands were called marches. The word is derived either from the Frankish word marka or the Anglo- Saxon word mearc, both of which meant boundary. The very existence of these areas threatened the peace of the heartland beyond. It was into this vulnerability, into this breach, that the Marcher lords rode. Almost immediately after the Conquest of 1066, William appointed three of his most valuable supporters to control the borderland between England and Wales, known as the Welsh Marches. Putting capable leaders in charge of these troublesome regions allowed William to devote his attention to the conquest of the Saxons in the northern part of England. It also allowed him to head back to Normandy to settle his affairs there. These three men, these Marcher Lords, were given special rights and privileges not offered to their counterparts in the rest of England. In effect, they were kings of their lordships. In order to keep the Welsh from overrunning the borders and intruding into England, these men were given virtually the same degree of power that only King 6

13 Into the Breach: The Marcher Lord in History William could wield in the rest of the realm so long as they provided military service and other things to the king when called upon. They administered the Welsh Marches with a stern countenance and a heavy hand. The three original Marcher Lords were Hugh d Avranches, Roger de Montgomery, and William FitzOsbern. They were granted the earldoms of Chester, Shrewsbury, and Hereford, respectively. These men took their positions seriously, enforcing the Law of the March: a combination of Norman, Welsh, and English laws and customs. As they developed their marches, these men established chanceries (offices of public records), exchequers (officials in charge of public revenues), and treasuries. They also built many religious foundations, such as abbeys and priories. William had charged these Marcher Lords not only with holding the boundaries of the kingdom but of expanding them. Norman rule had to be extended into Wales, by force if necessary. And force was often necessary. Over time these Marcher Lords and their successors moved progressively westward into Wales using all the resources at their command. They waged private wars, seized land, founded market towns, and erected some of the most important castles in the realm. Many Marcher castles survive to this day. Even in ruin, they remain durable emblems of the power and authority once held by the Marcher Lords. 7

14 Lise Hull The Castles of the Welsh Marches But stone castles take a long time to build. Years, even decades. And Wales was a hotbed of rebellion. The Welsh weren t about to give the invaders a decade of peace in which to build fortresses of stone and iron. So the Normans built many of their strongholds out of earth and timber. Stone generally came later. The Welsh Marches eventually came to contain the highest concentration of motte and bailey castles in Britain. Even though many have been destroyed, dozens of these surprisingly sturdy castles still exist in the historic landscape of England and Wales. They are easy to identify 8

15 Into the Breach: The Marcher Lord in History as you drive through the villages and towns that give the region its character. Over time some of these Marcher Lord strongholds such as Chester, Shrewsbury, and Chepstow Castles acquired substantial stone fortifications and came to play key roles in local and national history. Of the three great Marcher seats, only two of the castles survive to any extent: Chester and Shrewsbury. Chester Castle Originally, Chester Castle was a standard Norman motte and bailey fortress, erected shortly after the Conquest of It was nestled against a corner of the city walls begun by the Romans, whose legionary fortress, Deva, had dominated the spot for over two centuries. Like the Marcher castle that later stood on the site, Deva had been built to keep the Welsh at bay. Chester Castle 9

16 Lise Hull For two hundred and fifty years following the Romans retreat from Britain, Chester was occupied by the Britons, Saxons, and Danes. In 614 the city was destroyed. However, in 907, the Saxons, under the guidance of Aethelflaeda (daughter of Alfred the Great), rebuilt the city, extending the walls to defend against Viking attacks. Under Saxon rule, Chester prospered. It came to contain a busy mint and a thriving port and was the home of the bones of St. Werburgh, a Mercian princess who founded several religious houses in Britain in the 700s. In 1070, King William finally managed to defeat the Saxons and subdue Chester. In fact, Chester was the last English city to succumb to the Normans. William gave control of the city and the surrounding area to his nephew, Hugh d Avranches. D Avranches, also known as Hugh Lupus, became the Earl of Chester. The new earl set about dividing his lands his portion of the march among eight barons. They in turn subdivided it further. D Avranches is thought to have built the first castle on the site. He soon replaced the wooden ramparts of the original motte and bailey fortification with stone, redesigning the castle to contain two baileys enclosed by a towered curtain wall and an array of residential structures, including a great hall and an apartment complex. Sadly, most of the castle has now disappeared, with the exception of the Agricola Tower. That tower, built several centuries 10

17 Into the Breach: The Marcher Lord in History after d Avranches s improvements, once functioned as the main gatehouse to Chester Castle. In about 1092, the Benedictines established an abbey dedicated to St. Werburgh, which prospered. And, during the 12th century, Chester was a flourishing port city, harboring ships from all across Europe. The Earls of Chester also erected Marcher castles at Frodsham and at Beeston. In Beeston the remains of the substantial stone stronghold constructed in 1220 by Ranulf de Blundeville, 6th Earl of Chester, still command a steepsided sandstone crag. Despite its prosperity, within two hundred years Chester Castle and the surrounding lands ceased to be held by the Marcher Lords and reverted to the control of the monarchy. In 1254, King Henry III granted the lordship (i.e., control of the region) to his eldest son, Prince Edward. The Prince, who was the future King Edward I, used it as a staging point for his campaigns against the Welsh. Since 1301, the earldom of Chester has been one of the many titles held by the reigning monarch s eldest son. Shrewsbury Castle Shrewsbury Castle has survived the centuries in somewhat better condition than Chester Castle. King William began construction on the motte castle shortly after the Conquest. The king granted the castle and the Marcher lordship 11

18 Lise Hull Whittingdon Castle to Roger de Montgomery in about 1074, and made de Montgomery Earl of Shrewsbury. During its tumultuous history, the castle s ownership vacillated between the monarchy and de Montgomery s heirs. It was during the reign of Henry II ( ) that the stronghold received its red sandstone shell keep, of which only foundations survive, and a towered outer wall. Edward I (ruled ) rebuilt the hall block in about 1288 and added two round corner towers to the exterior walls. Today, the heavily restored structure houses the Shropshire Regimental Museum. Even so, visitors can gain a real impression of the overall extent of the castle, which retains portions of the curtain wall, main gate, postern gate, and the motte. 12

19 Into the Breach: The Marcher Lord in History Roger de Montgomery built other Marcher castles in England at Ellesmere, Quatford, and Whittington and in Wales at Hen Domen, which is also known as Old Montgomery. Henry III replaced this massive motte castle with a much more formidable stone castle, which still towers over the village of Montgomery. Hereford Castle As mentioned above, the original three Marcher Lords were Hugh d Avranches, Roger de Montgomery, and William FitzOsbern. They were the Earls of Chester, Shewsbury, and Hereford. We ve looked at the Marcher castles of Chester and Shrewsbury. But what of FitzOsbern s castle at Hereford? During the medieval period, Hereford Castle was the center of a huge and powerful Marcher lordship. Nevertheless, Hereford Castle has virtually disappeared. The earliest castle built at the site, a motte, was built by Norman associates of Edward the Confessor, who was the Saxon king before William the Conqueror landed in It was one of the three pre-conquest castles erected in England in about At that time, Hereford was a Saxon burh (fortified settlement), the first to have been erected on the western side of the River Severn. William FitzOsbern, the Earl of Hereford, was one of King William s greatest Marcher lords. FitzOsbern built a new castle at the site probably in late 1066 or The 13

20 Lise Hull substantial motte probably stood just west of what is known as Castle Green. Sadly, this castle no longer survives. The Earl of Hereford was also responsible for constructing Marcher castles in England at Berkeley, Clifford, and Wigmore and in Wales at Caldicot, Chepstow, Clyro, and Monmouth, and possibly at Grosmont, Skenfrith, and Llantilio Crossenny (White Castle). Like his colleagues, FitzOsbern also had castles elsewhere in England. Caldicot Castle 14

21 Famous Welsh Marcher Lords Into the Breach: The Marcher Lord in History The Welsh Marches were wild and unruly, much like the American west during frontier times. Marcher Lords administered their own law courts. In their absence, one of their representatives, a sheriff or senior official, would conduct the courts. These representatives were often ruthless when administering justice, levying huge fines and unfair taxes, and imposing severe sentences on what might by our standards be considered petty crimes. The Marcher lords were also leaders in the king s court. It was not uncommon for them to band together and instigate an uprising when they felt the monarchy was causing problems for them or for the larger kingdom, where they usually held other vast estates. They led several major rebellions, including the wars that resulted in King John s signing of the Magna Carta. Edward Stafford More than once during the Middle Ages these revolts resulted in the untimely death or intentional execution of one or another of the Marcher Lords. Britain s last Marcher Lord was a man named Edward Stafford, the third Duke of Buckingham. When he discovered that King Henry VIII was having an affair with Stafford s sister, he exposed the king and caused an embarrassing scandal at court. The king later discovered that Stafford 15

22 Lise Hull had formed a private army to defy the him. In 1521 Henry manufactured a charge of treason against Stafford and had him executed. Stafford s castle at Thornbury, which is now a hotel, is considered to be the last true castle built in England. Henry seized it for his own use after the duke s execution on Tower Hill in London. Roger de Mortimer Perhaps the greatest and most notorious Marcher family was the Mortimers. Even though a Roger de Mortimer accompanied Duke William of Normandy on his invasion of England in 1066, it was not until 1328 that his descendant, another Roger de Mortimer, acquired the title 1st Earl of March. Before then, though, the Mortimers had long been making their mark in England. By the time of the Domesday Book (1088) they had accumulated vast estates and numerous castles in twelve counties in England, including a number of earth and timber strongholds in the Marcher counties of Herefordshire and Shropshire. Their main seat was at Wigmore Castle in Shropshire, but they also owned Clifford Castle, which William FitzOsbern had originally built. Mortimer properties on the Welsh side of the Marches included several earth and timber fortresses in Powys, which they refortified with stone; mighty Chirk Castle, one of the finest surviving 16

23 Into the Breach: The Marcher Lord in History Marcher castles; Narberth Castle in Pembrokeshire; and Ludlow Castle in Shropshire. Except for Chirk and Ludlow, all of these castles now exist in a heavily ruined condition. Chirk Castle was built by Roger de Mortimer in the 1280s. Since 1595 it has served as the stately home of the Myddelton family. It is now owned by the National Trust and open to the public. Ludlow Castle was originally constructed in the eleventh century by Roger de Lacy, the head of another successful Marcher family. Even as an empty shell, Ludlow is one of the finest surviving Marcher castles in Britain. Five miles southwest of Ludlow is Wigmore Castle, the Marcher seat of the de Mortimer family. Despite its crumbling condition, in many ways Wigmore Castle is more impressive than Chirk. Wigmore Castle is considered Wigmore Castle 17

24 Lise Hull the last great medieval stone castle to be conserved in England. The Domesday Book records that it was actually William FitzOsbern, Earl of Hereford and a prolific castle-builder, who founded Wigmore Castle. However, shortly after 1075, it became the property of Ralph de Mortimer. Controversy seemed to follow the Mortimers as they attempted to gain more and more power within the kingdom. In 1330 Roger Mortimer was forced to give up the earldom. The new king, Edward III, held him accountable for his treasonous betrayal of King Edward II, for his affair with Edward II s wife, Queen Isabella ( the she-wolf of France ), and his role in the murder of the king at Berkeley Castle in Interestingly, the Mortimer family was allowed to retain rights to Wigmore Castle until well into the 15th century The earldom was reinstated several times, including in 1619, when a Scot, Esme Stewart, and his heirs, the Dukes of Lennox, acquired the English title, and lastly in 1675, when Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond and Lennox, became Earl of March. His heirs carry the title to this day. 18

25 The Scottish Marches Into the Breach: The Marcher Lord in History Like the Welsh Marches, the borderland between Scotland and England had long been a battle zone. The Romans had even built two lengthy stone walls in an effort to keep the native population out of England. The border region then roughly corresponds to the modern boundary between England and Scotland, though likely dipped south into the northernmost part of England. Scottish Earls of March included the Earls of Dunbar, the Stewart Dukes of Albany, and the Earls of Wemyss and March. Initially, the Norman Conquest did not impact Scotland, which had its own king and ruling system. But, beginning in the 1120s the Scottish king, David I (reigned ), invited Norman barons and clerics to settle the lowlands of Scotland. Soon, English motte castles and stone abbeys began to appear across the countryside of southern Scotland. And yet, the Scottish Marches were every bit as volatile as the Welsh Marches. Wars were waged between the Scots and the English throughout the centuries. And the Scots often warred against other Scots. There were even wars between the powerful English lords who oversaw the Scottish Marches such as between the Percys, Earls of Northumberland and the rulers of England. 19

26 Lise Hull Life in a Marcher Lord s Castle The lords of the Welsh Marches didn t actually devote much time to their Marcher lordships. They were largely absentee lords who spent the majority of their time at the king s court or accompanying him on his travels or to war. Marcher castles were, therefore, frequently left under the control of a senior official, normally the constable or steward, or the Marcher lord s wife, if she remained behind. These ladies were known as chatelaines, which is French for wife of the lord of a castle. Many chatelaines were quite capable of directing the day-to-day activities at the castle and, during a siege, they often led the garrison against the attacking army. Most often, though, in the absence of the lord, a Marcher castle would be managed by the constable and the steward. The constable managed all aspects of castle administration, including its military affairs, contents, and facilities. He would occupy the lord s own chambers or else a residence over the gate passage. The steward managed the lord s estate, supervised the household staff, and directed events in the great hall. Stewards commonly lived in the best servant quarters, and sometimes resided in chambers in a special tower. Other key members of the household staff included the chamberlain, the chancellor, the chaplain or priest, the keeper of the wardrobe, and the butler (or bottler). 20

27 Into the Breach: The Marcher Lord in History Subordinates included kitcheners, cooks, bakers and baxters, brewers, tapsters, scullions, larderers, poulterers, fruiterers, slaughterers, pantlers, chandlers, washerwomen (laundresses), waterers, cellarers, ewerers, cup-bearers, and dispensers. Gong farmers (or gang fermors) had the unpleasant task of emptying and cleaning the latrines and removing human waste from the castle. All of these servants worked at the castle during peacetime and in wartime, when they were sometimes called upon to man the battlements. They lived in communal chambers or special servants quarters, slept on the floors of their work spaces, or lived in simple houses not too far from the castle. Food in a Marcher Castle When the Marcher lord was in residence, he had a variety of administrative duties that kept him busy. Nevertheless, he often made time for entertaining official guests, such as important noblemen or even the monarch. He would lay out enormous feasts in the great hall, lead the hunt, and even host tournaments. Eating was one of the castle dweller s most popular pastimes. Banquets were used to impress the lord s guests with his generosity and wealth. Indeed, many lords bankrupted themselves in an effort to show their company a good time. Meals were taken three times a day in a Marcher castle, like in any other castle of the era. At sunrise, the 21

28 Lise Hull castle s occupants enjoyed a small breakfast of bread and cheese. Then, between 10 a.m. and noon, they enjoyed the main meal of the day: dinner. Toward sunset a lighter supper would be served, consisting of bread, cheese, and perhaps a small dish such as a stew. After supper, minstrels, storytellers, acrobats, or contortionists might entertain the guests. When not entertaining, a lord s dinner typically consisted of two to three courses, mainly meats and pastries, bread, wine, fruits, cheeses, and nuts. A feast was something much more dramatic: beef, pork, mutton, venison, poultry, fish, eggs, bread, milk, cheeses, vegetables (but only in small quantities, because they were considered common ) and wine, ale, cider, and mead in ample supply. For example, a feast in 1467 celebrating the installation of George Neville, Archbishop of York, served the following to the 6,000 or so guests: 300 quarters of wheat; 300 tuns of ale; 100 tuns of wine; 1 pipe of hippocras; 104 oxen; 6 wild bulls; 1,000 sheep; 304 calves; 304 porkes ; 400 swans; 2,000 geese; 1,000 capons; 2,000 pigs; 104 peacocks; over 13,500 other birds; 500 stags, bucks, and roes; 1,500 venison pies; 608 pikes and breams; 12 porpoises and seals; 13,000 dishes of jelly; cold baked tarts, custards, and spices; sugared delicacies; and wafers. Except in times of famine or warfare, food was readily available in the Marcher castles during the spring and 22

29 Into the Breach: The Marcher Lord in History summer months. But the winter months were a time of scarcity, and preparations were made during the rest of the year to ensure the availability of meat. Wild animals were always hard to find during the winter, so most of the cattle were slaughtered and deer from the manorial deer park hunted. Beef and venison had to be dried or the meat would begin to rot. Pigeon houses (dovecotes) were built for breeding pigeons for the food supply, and provided squab, a tasty delicacy for the lord s table, throughout the year. The castle s ponds augmented wintertime food stores. Like meat, fish had to be salted or smoked for extended preservation. Even the rich, who should have had better methods of staying healthy, suffered from a variety of ailments, such as scurvy, tooth decay, heart problems, skin eruptions, and infections caused by lack of proper nutrition. The peasantry had a tough time surviving, no matter the season. They mainly lived on vegetables such as turnips or salad, dark breads (deemed not fit for nobles), porridges, an occasional fish, cheese curds, beer, ale, or mead. Peasants who worked at the castle sometimes dined on special dinners provided by the lord. Christmas dinners typically consisted of white bread, soup, beer, and two kinds of meat; the more fortunate members of the lord s staff might have beef and bacon with mustard, a chicken stew, and cheese. At an exceptional Christmas meal in 1311, servants were treated to four geese and three hens. 23

30 Lise Hull Religious Life in a Marcher Castle Medieval lords often portrayed themselves as pious Christians. And while some were quite devout, others merely put on a display. However, they often served as patrons for local religious establishments, such as abbeys or priories, many of which were built at the behest of the lord. Today, it is not uncommon to find a medieval parish church or the ruins of a monastic community standing within easy walking distance of a castle. This is true at Wigmore, where Oliver de Merlimond, steward to Ranulph and Hugh de Mortimer, founded Wigmore Abbey in It s also the case at Shrewsbury, where Roger de Montgomery converted the existing church into a fine abbey. Ironically, he himself took sacred vows only three days before his death in It is worth noting that William the Conqueror founded Battle Abbey as a way to do penance for taking so many lives during the Battle of Hastings. The remains of the abbey lie on a hill overlooking the valley where the battle took place. Even beyond the proliferation of churches and monastic communities, most Marcher castles had at least one chapel where the lord and his family could attend Mass on a daily basis. Many castles featured distinctive chapel towers and often maintained a smaller, secondary chapel, which offered services to the household staff and other residents. Some Marcher castles, such as Ludlow, had 24

31 Into the Breach: The Marcher Lord in History free-standing chapels. The Chapel of St. Mary Magdalene, Ludlow Castle s unique stone chapel, stands on its own in the inner bailey, one of two chapels at that important Marcher castle. Some lords even constructed entire churches within their castles. One was Henry, 4th Lord Percy, whose collegiate church at Warkworth Castle now lays extensively ruined midway between the great polygonal keep and the outer bailey. The shell of another, more substantial chapel stands just west of the main gatehouse. This outer chapel was probludlow Chapel ably used by the members of the castle staff, retainers, and other residents. By building an entire church in the center of the inner bailey, the Percys, who were Marcher Lords in northern England, undoubtedly intended to symbolically reconfirm 25

32 Lise Hull their importance to England and probably to God as well. Curiously, Percy s church was never completed. Now represented by its cruciform foundations, the church would have housed a group of priests who sang mass and prayed for their benefactor. A much more flamboyant church inside a castle is St. George s Chapel in Windsor Castle. The Marcher Lord Legacy The idea of the March and Marcher lords in fact predated William the Conqueror s invasion of England in Indeed, we have already seen that march derives from an earlier word in Anglo-Saxon or Frankish. There were several Marcher regions in medieval Europe long before the Welsh and Scottish Marches became an issue for the Normans. As in Britain, these were frontier areas separating two distinct populations or power centers. Many of our modern European nations actually originated as Marcher lands, such as Denmark (the Danish March). Certain titles within the nobility such as marquis, marquess, marchioness, marchese, marques, and marquesa derive from original roles as Marcher Lords and their ladies. In medieval Germany and other parts of the Holy Roman Empire, a mark was a border province presided over by a margraf or margrave. This margrave, whom we recognize as a Marcher lord, functioned as the borderland s military and feudal overlord, a count of the 26

33 Into the Breach: The Marcher Lord in History march responsible for maintaining an army and fortifying the region against enemy invasion. Margraves were essential to the defense of the empire. Not surprisingly, many became powerful and wealthy in their own right and achieved a significant degree of independence. These marks or Marches existed throughout the whole of Europe, including in Armenia, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, France, Germany, Holland, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Prussia, Romania, Russia, Spain, and Sweden. Wherever there were dangerous boundaries between unfriendly neighbors, Marcher lords ruled from Marcher castles. We can see the idea of the March in modern geopolitical thought, especially in the idea of a cordon sanitaire, or boundary line intended to stop the spread of a rival state s influence. The fantasy novelist J.R.R. Tolkien used the idea of the Marcher lord in The Lord of the Rings when he named Theoden the Lord of the Mark. But the most enduring legacy left to the modern world by the medieval Marcher lords can be seen in the physical landscape. Marcher castles by the dozen still dot the countryside along the border between Wales and England, and between Scotland and England. These fortresses and ruins are lasting testimonials to the people who built them, to the resilience of the native populations they attempted to control, and to the Marcher lords who stood in the breach to protect the heartlands they loved. 27