Published in 2006: Southern African Humanities 18(1): (page numbers below reflect publication page numbers)

Transcription

1 82 C H A P T E R S E V E N (Thesis pages 82-97) Published in 2006: Southern African Humanities 18(1): (page numbers below reflect publication page numbers) FIRST IMPRESSIONS OF THE FUNCTIONS AND HAFTING TECHNOLOGY OF STILL BAY POINTED ARTEFACTS FROM SIBUDU CAVE Abstract 27 Introduction. 27 Methodology and sample 28 Tool-by-tool results of the analyses 28 Double-pointed, asymmetrical bifacial point 1 (Tool 1) 28 Double-pointed, asymmetrical bifacial point 2 (Tool 2) 30 Triangular bifacial point (Tool 3) 31 Pointed proximal/medial fragment 1 (Tool 4). 32 Pointed proximal/medial fragment 2 (Tool 5). 33 Pointed proximal/medial fragment 3 (Tool 6). 33 Pointed proximal/medial fragment 4 (Tool 7). 33 Diagonally fractured point (Tool 8). 35 Distal point fragment 1 (Tool 9).. 35 Distal point fragment 2 (Tool 10) 36 Distal point fragment 3 (Tool 11) 36 Discussion 37 Testing of existing hypotheses. 37 Functional and hafting hypotheses generated from this study.. 38 Conclusion 39 References. 40

2 Southern African Humanities Vol. 18 (1) Pages Pietermaritzburg November, 2006 First impressions of the functions and hafting technology of Still Bay pointed artefacts from Sibudu Cave Marlize Lombard Natal Museum, P. Bag 9070, Pietermaritzburg, 3200 & School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, P. Bag 3, Wits, 2050 South Africa; ABSTRACT The exceptional preservation of organic material at Sibudu Cave has made residue analysis feasible on newly discovered Still Bay bifacial stone tools. A glimpse into the livelihoods and skills of people living at the site during the Still Bay is provided by use-traces that suggest hafting technology as well as butchery and hunting activities. Because the sample size is small, raw data are discussed for single tools. Although I am not prepared to make generalised interpretations for the Still Bay of South Africa from these results, they provide a solid base for formulating working hypotheses that can be tested with more extensive samples, both from Sibudu Cave and other sites. This study also proved useful for testing existing hypotheses based on typological and technological analyses of pointed Still Bay artefacts. KEY WORDS: Still Bay, Middle Stone Age, Sibudu Cave, stone tools, function, hafting, residues, macrofractures, use-wear, working hypotheses. INTRODUCTION Recently, a Still Bay industry at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, was announced (Wadley 2006; Wadley & Jacobs this volume). Two Middle Stone Age (MSA) layers containing thin bifacial lanceolate points, mostly in the form of point fragments, were excavated in Double-pointed foliates are the type-fossils of the Still Bay industry and, technologically, the points from Sibudu Cave are comparable to those from other South African sites with Still Bay components, such as Blombos Cave and Hollow Rock Shelter (Wadley 2006; Wadley & Jacobs this volume). The Still Bay at Sibudu Cave is clearly stratified, and occurs directly below the Howiesons Poort techno-complex. Data from Blombos Cave (where the industry is dated to ~75 77 ka) have given rise to a debate about the role of the Still Bay in the emergence of modern cognitive behaviour and capacities (Henshilwood, d Errico et al. 2001; Henshilwood, Sealy et al. 2001). Finding resolution within this debate is difficult, especially since the notion of modern behaviour is still controversial (Henshilwood & Marean 2003; Tribolo et al. 2005; Wadley 2001), but increasingly evidence seems to indicate that people were behaving in a modern way during this period (Brooks 2006; Henshilwood 2006). Parallel to these predominantly theoretical discussions, projects that investigate function and hafting technologies based on direct data from stone tools may provide in-depth understanding of the technical and cognitive aptitudes of people practising a Still Bay technology. Furthermore, they allude to subtle changes that may have occurred in hunting and hafting technologies during the MSA of southern Africa. This contribution represents an attempt to obtain impressions of the functions and hafting technologies applied to pointed stone tools from this industry. These impressions are based on use-trace data, where usetrace includes all traces left by use or hafting practices on the tools. These traces include residues, usewear and macro-fractures.

3 28 SOUTHERN AFRICAN HUMANITIES, VOL. 18 (1), 2006 Use-trace studies conducted on pointed stone tools have shown that during the post- Howiesons Poort of Sibudu Cave (60 50 ka) people were skilled hunters using stonetipped spears. Detailed information was obtained regarding the adhesive and binding materials, and a hidden woodworking specialisation was revealed (Lombard 2004, 2005a). The analysis of microscopic residue distribution patterns (Lombard this volume; Wadley, Lombard & Williamson 2004; Wadley, Williamson & Lombard 2004) and replication studies (Hodgskiss 2006; Wadley 2005a, b) also showed that ochre was used to load resinous adhesives in the hafting technologies of the post-howiesons Poort and Howiesons Poort techno-complexes at the site. The current sample of whole Still Bay pointed artefacts on which the distribution patterns of use-traces can be successfully documented is small (n = 3). They were retrieved from the RGS and RGS 2 layers in a test excavation of 2 m 2 that has been reduced by intrusive rocks to an area of little more than a metre square (Wadley & Jacobs this volume). Even though there are only a few tools to analyse, the results have stimulated new working hypotheses about tool function and hafting technologies. METHODOLOGY AND SAMPLE I excavated the tools myself and placed them into individual airtight plastic bags directly after their removal from the soil. They were not handled or removed from the bags until analysed in a clean microscopy laboratory. The analytical methodology applied to this sample is the same as that described in previous publications and it is therefore not discussed here. For residue analysis, see Lombard (2004, 2005a); for usewear analysis, see Lombard (2005a); for macro-fracture analysis, see Lombard (2005b) and Lombard et al. (2004); for soil analysis, see Lombard (this volume), and for blind tests, see Wadley, Lombard & Williamson (2004) and Lombard and Wadley (in press). In addition to the three whole pointed artefacts, I examined the proximal/medial fragments of four broken tools to determine if they were hafted, and if they were intended as points that were reversible in their hafts. As a test for possible hunting traces, a diagonally fractured point and three distal point fragments (two with diagnostic impact fractures) were also analysed, bringing the complete analysed sample to 11 pieces. This sample is too small to enable me to extend my interpretations to Still Bay pointed tools in general. Therefore, the interpretations presented here are limited to the individual tools, and should, in my opinion, not be considered typical of all Still Bay tools until larger samples have been analysed. TOOL-BY-TOOL RESULTS OF THE ANALYSES Double-pointed, asymmetrical bifacial point 1 (Tool 1) This tool has clear evidence of having been hafted and used. Numerous use-traces were documented and plotted on all the portions (Fig. 1). However, there are fewer usetraces on the internal surfaces of the distal portion when compared to the other portions. Longitudinal striations along the medial and distal laterals indicate cutting, sawing or slicing. The combined evidence of striations that are well developed, located along the edges and parallel to them, but are absent from the internal surfaces, indicates that the tool was used as a knife rather than as the tip of a hunting weapon. This is supported by the lack of damage to the tip itself. Such fine tips often show crushing or fracturing when they have been submitted to impact use (hunting). No plant residues or ochre

4 LOMBARD: STILL BAY POINTED ARTEFACTS 29 Fig. 1. Use-trace plots on double-pointed, asymmetrical bifacial point 1 (Tool 1). Key for Figures 1 11 At animal tissue Hr hair Bl possible blood (possible because LStr longitudinal striations the residue has not been tested); MWr macerated woody residue Bn bone Oc ochre Bs brown stain Pf plant fibre Co collagen Po polish Ed edge damage Pt plant tissue Er edge rounding TStr transverse striations Ft animal fat Wr Woody residue occur on the distal portion. Instead, combinations of faunal residue types are well represented; these include animal tissue, bone, collagen and fat. Fat also seems to have been pushed up to the hafting line. The same interpretation applies to both the dorsal and ventral sides. Hafting lines occur regularly (Gibson et al. 2004; Lombard 2005a; Tomlinson 2001; Williamson pers. comm.). They are manifest in concentrations of residues that were probably pushed together at the haft or binding terminations. On pointed MSA tools, hafting lines are often located in the medial portions. On this tool, the hafting line is represented by a transverse distribution of ochre, resin and woody residue across the breadth of the tool on both the dorsal and ventral sides, starting in similar positions along the length of the tool.

5 30 SOUTHERN AFRICAN HUMANITIES, VOL. 18 (1), 2006 Except for some fat occurrences adjacent to the hafting line, there are no other faunal residues on the proximal portion of the tool. Woody residue, macerated woody residue, plant fibres and plant tissue indicate the possibility of a wooden haft. This inference is supported by well-developed bright polish on both faces of the proximal portion. The numerous ochre and resin occurrences on the proximal portion show that these two ingredients were probably mixed to produce an adhesive. The edge damage and edge rounding along the proximal edges point to the use of binding in addition to the adhesive. This tool was probably used for cutting animal products. The more prolific concentration of animal residues on one side could even indicate that the same edge was mostly used as the cutting edge. There are no indications of this being a multipurpose tool. It was hafted to a wooden handle, and held in place with an adhesive as well as bindings. The development of polish and striations indicate that it was a wellused implement. Double-pointed, asymmetrical bifacial point 2 (Tool 2) All the usewear traces on the distal portion are located along one edge (Fig. 2). These traces consist of polish, edge rounding and transverse striations. They indicate cleaving or scraping motions rather than cutting or sawing actions. Most residues are of animal origin and include bone, collagen, animal tissue and fat. One plant fibre and one ochre occurrence were documented on the distal portion. Their isolated representation on this portion may point to traces of previous use-episodes or accidental contamination, with the latter interpretation considered the more likely, because of the lack of supportive evidence for the processing of either plant material or ochre (see Lombard & Wadley in press). A brown stain was also documented, but its origin is at this stage unclear. Fig. 2. Use-trace plots on double-pointed, asymmetrical bifacial point 2 (Tool 2). See Figure 1 caption for key.

6 LOMBARD: STILL BAY POINTED ARTEFACTS 31 The medial portion shows animal tissue and bone, possibly pushed up against the hafting line. Remarkable though, are the abundant occurrences of bright polish in association with ochre, resin, woody residue, plant tissue, and only two occurrences of fat on the proximal/medial portions. The degree of the polish development may indicate considerable friction between a handle and the stone tool. Edge rounding, polish, striations and edge damage around the proximal edges in association with these residues suggest that this tool was hafted, glued to its haft with an ochre/resin mix and lashed to its handle with bindings. An interesting occurrence is the fat in association with other hafting traces. This combination was also observed for hafted post-howiesons Poort points (Lombard 2005a). Based on the combined use-traces, the last use episode for this hafted tool is interpreted as the disarticulation of carcass joints using a cleaving action, and/or the scraping of animal products. Triangular bifacial point (Tool 3) This tool has only slight damage, rounding and polish on its very tip (Fig. 3). This could have resulted from either impact use or trampling. Not many use residues were documented on the distal portion of this tool. The dominating residue is a brown stain. This residue is also present on the proximal portion and, at least in one instance, it is associated with signs of fungal growth. Only one fat occurrence was recorded. Thus, in the absence of any other faunal residues, the brown stain on this tool portion is not interpreted as a blood residue. The lack of a clear distribution pattern with multiple related residues or wear traces, relating to specific tool portions, indicates that the brown staining may be due to a post-depositional or incidental episode. The same applies to the ochre occurrences on the tool. Fig. 3. Use-trace plots on triangular bifacial point (Tool 3). See Figure 1 caption for key.

7 32 SOUTHERN AFRICAN HUMANITIES, VOL. 18 (1), 2006 Plant tissue and a single plant fibre were also recorded. Edge rounding, edge damage and polish concentrated around the proximal edges show that the tool may have been hafted. However, if this tool was used and hafted, very few residues resulting from these practices were preserved. The tip damage can be ascribed to trampling, but the use-wear around the proximal edge is consistent with hafting. It is therefore my interpretation that the tool was hafted, but not necessarily used. An alternative interpretation is that moisture (of which the brown stain may be evidence) and fungal growth prevented the optimal preservation of use/hafting-related residues. Pointed proximal/medial fragment 1 (Tool 4) No usewear traces were observed on this tool fragment (Fig. 4), but this may be due to the nature of the quartzite from which the tool was produced. This particular raw material can also make residue interpretations more difficult because of coloured and reflective inclusions in the rock. Red iron-rich inclusions especially can be mistaken for ochre. Resin and what could be ochre residues occur mostly on the medial portion of the piece. Woody residue and macerated woody residue also occur in this portion. Some ochre and one occurrence of woody residue are located on the edge of the proximal portion. Fat was mostly documented on this portion, with only one bone occurrence. On the proximal ventral portion, there is evidence of fungal growth and brown staining. Although some residue types seem to be well grouped they are difficult to interpret. It is conceivable that a wooden haft was fitted transversely to the tool, which was then used to slice or scrape, although use-action cannot be determined without usewear traces. However, not many residues concentrated on the working edge of the tool if the tool was hafted in this way. Fungal growth could thus be considered a factor here. Based on the lack of other faunal residues and only one bone occurrence, the fat and its distribution Fig. 4. Use-trace plots on pointed proximal/medial fragment 1 (Tool 4). See Figure 1 caption for key.

8 LOMBARD: STILL BAY POINTED ARTEFACTS 33 Fig. 5. Use-trace plots on pointed proximal/medial fragment 2 (Tool 5). See Figure 1 caption for key. pattern are interpreted as contamination. Such contamination could have been caused either by prehistoric handling of the tool with fatty hands, or by deposition of the tool in the soil next to fatty bone or another fat source such as a fire where meat was being cooked. I can assign no function to this tool fragment. It was possibly hafted, but this is not certain. Pointed proximal/medial fragment 2 (Tool 5) This tool fragment has few residues (Fig. 5), which include some fat, ochre, one plant tissue and brown staining. All residues are interpreted as coincidental. Without clear usewear traces it is conceivable that the tool broke during the manufacturing or re-tooling process, and was subsequently discarded without having been used or rehafted. Pointed proximal/medial fragment 3 (Tool 6) Three ochre occurrences were documented on this tool (Fig. 6), but given the difficulty of accurately recording residues on quartzite, and the size, thickness and topography of the tool fragment, it would be more prudent to refrain from suggesting a possible use for this tool. No hafting traces could be detected. Pointed proximal/medial fragment 4 (Tool 7) The sparse and dispersed residues on this tool fragment cannot be ascribed to any specific function or hafting (Fig. 7). The polish concentrated only on the highest protruding surface of the ventral side is interpreted as trampling.

9 34 SOUTHERN AFRICAN HUMANITIES, VOL. 18 (1), 2006 Fig. 6. Use-trace plots on pointed proximal/medial fragment 3 (Tool 6). See Figure 1 caption for key. Fig. 7. Use-trace plots on pointed proximal/medial fragment 4 (Tool 7). See Figure 1 caption for key.

10 LOMBARD: STILL BAY POINTED ARTEFACTS 35 Fig. 8. Use-trace plots on diagonally fractured point (Tool 8). See Figure 1 caption for key. Diagonally fractured point (Tool 8) This tool fragment shows some crushing on its tip (Fig. 8) and this may represent impact use. Although there are not many residues, they show clear patterning in their distribution and clustering. All of the faunal residues are located on the distal/medial portions, and they include fat, bone, collagen and possibly blood. All of the ochre, resin, woody and macerated woody residues are located on the proximal/medial portions. Few discernible usewear traces were documented, but this could be due to the nature of the raw material (quartzite). However, there are some polished spots on the proximal portion closely associated with macerated woody residue. Based on the use-traces and their distribution on the tool fragment, it is probably safe to interpret this tool as having been hafted and used as a pointed weapon for hunting. However, it was probably not used extensively before it broke and was lost or discarded. Distal point fragment 1 (Tool 9) This distal fragment shows severe damage to its tip, and it has a feather-terminating fracture on its proximal termination (Fig. 9). Faunal residues are concentrated near the tip as well as on the surfaces of the fragment. Bone, fat, animal tissue, collagen and hair are represented. The two ochre occurrences, a plant fibre and one exudate occurrence may be coincidental contamination. Brown staining is present, as well as some fungal

11 36 SOUTHERN AFRICAN HUMANITIES, VOL. 18 (1), 2006 Fig. 9. Use-trace plots on distal point fragment 1 (Tool 9). See Figure 1 caption for key. growth, indicating possible post-depositional residues. The well-developed polish in association with multiple exudate, resin, plant tissue and ochre occurrences located on the proximal extremity may indicate the initiation of a hafting line on the tool. It is therefore possible that this tool was hafted and used as a pointed hunting weapon. Distal point fragment 2 (Tool 10) This tip fragment shows bifacial spin-off fractures originating from a step-terminating fracture on its proximal termination (Fig. 10). The extreme tip itself is damaged, rounded and has polish. Bone, animal tissue and fat are well represented. The bone fragments concentrated around the edge of a large spin-off fracture on the dorsal side of the fragment could indicate that the tool was fractured as a result of impact against bone. A diagonal fatty smear on the ventral side possibly indicates deflection and a change of direction as a result of such impact. Some brown staining is present on both surfaces of the piece. The faunal residues are distributed over the whole surface of the tip and are not concentrated along its edges. Based on the nature of the macro-fractures and the residues, this tool was probably used as a pointed hunting weapon. Distal point fragment 3 (Tool 11) A large spin-off fracture originating from a feather-terminating fracture on the dorsal side of the tip fragment is diagnostic of impact (Fig. 11). The tip is slightly rounded. Bone, collagen, animal tissue and fat are well represented. One possible blood occurrence was also documented on the ventral surface, with bone and collagen concentrated on the tip itself. Brown staining is present on both surfaces as well as on the fractured surface, indicating that this may be the result of post-depositional staining. The polish concentrated on the highest proximal ridges is interpreted as trampling. Like Tool 10, this tool was probably used for hunting purposes.

12 LOMBARD: STILL BAY POINTED ARTEFACTS 37 Fig. 10. Use-trace plots on distal point fragment 2 (Tool 10). See Figure 1 caption for key. Fig. 11. Use-trace plots on distal point fragment 3 (Tool 11). See Figure 1 caption for key. DISCUSSION Testing of existing hypotheses The use-trace analyses conducted on Tools 1 7 were performed to test Wadley s (2006) hypothesis that the double-pointed, bifacial points with asymmetrical bases from Sibudu Cave were not intended to be reversible in their hafts, but that the bases were pointed to facilitate a type of hafting that was favoured at the time. The functional

13 38 SOUTHERN AFRICAN HUMANITIES, VOL. 18 (1), 2006 analyses of the two double-pointed, asymmetrical-based bifacial points (Tools 1 and 2) support this suggestion. Multiple, clear hafting traces are concentrated only on the proximal/medial portions. The intensity of the hafting traces indicates that there was considerable friction between the handles and blades. This may be expected for tools used for repetitive actions such as cutting, sawing or scraping. Tool 1 shows signs of having been used as a knife for butchering. The use-traces on this tool also support Minichillo s (2005) suggestion that some Still Bay points were used as knives. Experimental work conducted in a Middle Palaeolithic Levantine context by Shea et al. (2001) also showed that long, thin points such as these are better suited for use as knives than as spearheads. In comparison to the high frequency of residues recorded on the proximal portion of Tool 2, the residues on the distal portion are meagre. Intense friction is probably the cause of the prolific polish and residue deposits on the proximal portion. This can be expected if the tool was re-sharpened in its haft as suggested for this tool by Wadley (2006) and as suggested by Minichillo (2005) for bifacial Still Bay points from the Cape. Original residues on the distal portion would have been removed during re-sharpening, and this may explain why relatively few residues accumulated on this portion. Contrary to Wadley s (2006) idea that such re-sharpened, shortened points were subsequently used as spear tips, Tool 2 was probably retained as a short-handled butchery tool. Hunting could not have caused the transverse striations restricted to the distal edges. However, it is quite possible that during the butchery process vertical cleaving or scraping actions were used to separate cartilage or tendons from bone. Also, during the disarticulation of joints one may need to press down with some force on a tool. Such actions would be difficult with long-bladed tools, and a shorter knife is more appropriate. It is therefore quite possible that the pointed, asymmetrical bases were favoured for butchery knives and cleaving implements. Unfortunately, the use-traces on the pointed proximal/medial fragments (Tools 4 7) neither support nor negate the hafting hypothesis. The dearth of use-traces on tools 5, 6 and 7 could be regarded as support for the interpretation that these tools were sculpted from rough-outs rather than lightly shaped on a blank with retouch (Wadley 2006), and that they broke before they were completed and used. This supports the impression of Henshilwood, Sealy et al. (2001) that some of the broken Still Bay pointed pieces at Blombos resulted from knapping accidents. At present, it is difficult to back this up with data from Sibudu Cave because this assemblage does not contain much evidence for the production of these artefacts (Wadley 2006). Functional and hafting hypotheses generated from this study The use-trace studies of Tools 1 and 2 suggest that the double-pointed bifacial points with asymmetrical bases were used as butchery implements. The post-howiesons Poort points from Sibudu Cave do not have pointed proximal portions, nor are these portions asymmetrically shaped. There were clear use-trace indications that most of the post- Howiesons Poort points were used as tips for hunting tools. The first hypothesis for the Still Bay tools can be formulated thus: that the pointed and asymmetrical bases were an adaptation to improve the hafting technology for specialised butchery knives or butchery implements. Figure 12 shows a hypothetical reconstruction of a butchery knife, providing what I consider the necessary structural strength and ergonomic features (offering finger space while cutting) optimal for such tools.

14 LOMBARD: STILL BAY POINTED ARTEFACTS 39 Fig. 12. Hypothetical reconstruction of Tool 1 as a butchering knife with a wooden haft. The only other whole tool in the sample that was provided for residue study is the triangular bifacial point, Tool 3, and this piece does not contain much use-trace information. However, the other pieces with intact tips (Tools 8 11) could all have been used for hunting. It is not possible to say whether any of Tools 8 11 were similar to Tools 1 and 2. Nevertheless, based on the fact that they all show hunting traces, the second working hypothesis for the Still Bay is that triangular bifacial points similar in morphology to post-howiesons Poort points and points with symmetrical proximal portions were used as tips for hunting weapons rather than butchery implements or knives. Fat was recorded on the Still Bay tool portions that were probably hafted and this distribution is similar to that on the post-howiesons Poort points from Sibudu Cave. During replication studies, Wadley (2005a) and Hodgskiss (2006) found that the most successful adhesives are those made with beeswax and aggregates. Adhesives with beeswax are easier to manipulate and add a degree of flexibility. Dried fat may have certain characteristics that are similar to beeswax. It is thus conceivable that small amounts of fat were mixed in with the resin and ochre in order to produce an effective adhesive. Beeswax appears as an amorphous yellow residue under the microscope, and fat as a bright white residue, sometimes with a blue tinge and red spots (Lombard 2004, 2005a). Thus, it is not likely that the fat documented on the archaeological tools could have been wax. A third hypothesis for future testing is that fat was part of the Still Bay adhesive recipe used by people at Sibudu Cave. CONCLUSION The Still Bay sample from Sibudu Cave is currently small and therefore not ideally suited for establishing trends, or constructing general interpretations of the function or hafting technologies of these tool types. However, the few analysed tools already confirm that some were hafted to wooden handles or shafts, and that some were used as butchering knives and implements, while others functioned as hunting weapons. Ochre was mixed into the adhesives used during the Still Bay at Sibudu Cave as it was in the adhesives used on post-howiesons Poort points and Howiesons Poort segments (Lombard this volume). Because of the excellent and perhaps exceptional residue preservation at Sibudu Cave, we are rewarded with a glimpse into the lives and skills of people living here during the MSA. Continued work at this site and others with hopefully equally well-preserved residues and other use-traces can provide ever more detailed information about human behaviour, contributing to our understanding of the process of modernisation in southern Africa s deep past.

15 40 SOUTHERN AFRICAN HUMANITIES, VOL. 18 (1), 2006 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My appreciation goes to Lyn Wadley for allowing me the opportunity to work on the tools before they were compromised by any handling (this privilege is invaluable for the accuracy and integrity of residue studies), and allowing the use of the drawings prepared by her as background for the use-trace plots. I thank Penny Letley who drew the knife reconstruction, Gavin Whitelaw and Bronwen van Doornum for comments on an early draft, and Chris Henshilwood and Tom Minichillo who refereed the paper. I also thank the Department of Archaeology at the University of the Witwatersrand for the use of their microscope and digital micrograph equipment for the duration of this study. My research is funded by the Palaeontological Scientific Trust and supported by the Natal Museum. Opinions expressed in this article, or any oversights, are my own and do not necessarily represent the views of the Trust or the Museum. REFERENCES BROOKS, A Recent perspectives on the Middle Stone Age of Africa. Paper read at the African Genesis Symposium on Hominid Evolution in Africa, Johannesburg, January 8 14, GIBSON, N. E., WADLEY, L. & WILLIAMSON, B. S Residue analysis of backed tools from the to year-old Howiesons Poort layers of Rose Cottage Cave, South Africa. Southern African Humanities 16: HENSHILWOOD, C The origins of modern human behaviour: evidence from the southern African Middle Stone Age. Paper read at the African Genesis Symposium on Hominid Evolution in Africa, Johannesburg, January 8 14, HENSHILWOOD, C., D ERRICO, F., MAREAN, C. W., MILO, R. G. & YATES, R An early bone tool industry from the Middle Stone Age at Blombos Cave, South Africa: implications for the origins of modern human behaviour, symbolism and language. Journal of Human Evolution 41: HENSHILWOOD, C., SEALY, J. C., YATES, R., CRUZ-URIBE, K., GOLDBERG, P., GRINE, F. E., KLEIN, R. G., POGGENPOEL, C., VAN NIEKERK, K. & WATTS, I Blombos Cave, southern Cape, South Africa: preliminary report on the excavations of the Middle Stone Age levels. Journal of Archaeological Science 28: HENSHILWOOD, C. & MAREAN, C. W The origin of modern human behaviour: critique of the models and their test implications. Current Anthropology 44: HODGSKISS, T In the mix: replication studies to test the effectiveness of ochre in adhesives for tool hafting. MSc dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand. LOMBARD, M Distribution patterns of organic residues on Middle Stone Age points from Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. South African Archaeological Bulletin 59: a. Evidence of hunting and hafting during the Middle Stone Age at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu- Natal, South Africa: a multianalytical approach. Journal of Human Evolution 48: b. A method for identifying Stone Age hunting tools. South African Archaeological Bulletin 60: Direct evidence for the use of ochre in the hafting technology of Middle Stone Age tools from Sibudu Cave. Southern African Humanities 18 (1): LOMBARD, M., PARSONS, I. & VAN DER RYST, M. M Middle Stone Age experimentation for macrofracture and residue analysis: the process and preliminary results with reference to Sibudu Cave points. South African Journal of Science 100: LOMBARD, M. & WADLEY, L. In press. The morphological identification of residues on stone tools using light microscopy: progress and difficulties based on blind tests. Journal of Archaeological Science. MINICHILLO, T. J Middle Stone Age lithic study, South Africa: an examination of modern human origins. PhD thesis, University of Washington. SHEA, J. J., DAVIS, J. D. & BROWN, K. S Experimental tests of Middle Palaeolithic spear points using a calibrated crossbow. Journal of Archaeological Science 28: TOMLINSON, N. E Residue analysis of segments, backed and obliquely backed blades from the Howiesons Poort layers of Rose Cottage Cave, South Africa. MA dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand. TRIBOLO, C., MERCIER, N. & VALLADAS, H Chronology of the Howieson s Poort and Still Bay technocomplexes: assessment and new data from luminescence. In: d Errico, F. & Backwell, L., eds, From tools to symbols: from early hominids to modern humans. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, pp

16 LOMBARD: STILL BAY POINTED ARTEFACTS 41 WADLEY, L What is cultural modernity? A general view and a South African perspective from Rose Cottage Cave. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 11: a. Ochre crayons or waste products? Replications compared with MSA crayons from Sibudu Cave, South Africa. Before Farming 2005/3: b. Putting ochre to the test: replication studies of adhesives that may have been used for hafting tools in the Middle Stone Age. Journal of Human Evolution 49: Announcing a Still Bay industry in the Middle Stone age at Sibudu Cave, KwaZulu-Natal. Paper read at the Association for Southern African Professional Archaeologists Conference, National Cultural History Museum, Pretoria, April 10 12, WADLEY, L. & JACOBS, Z Sibudu Cave: background to the excavations, stratigraphy and dating. Southern African Humanities 18 (1): WADLEY, L., LOMBARD, M. & WILLIAMSON, B The first residue analysis blind tests: results and lessons learnt. Journal of Archaeological Science 31: WADLEY, L., WILLIAMSON, B. & LOMBARD, M Ochre in hafting in Middle Stone Age southern Africa: a practical role. Antiquity 78: