Supporting Online Material for

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1 Supporting Online Material for The Origins of C 4 Grasslands: Integrating Evolutionary and Ecosystem Science Erika J. Edwards,* Colin P. Osborne,* Caroline A. E. Strömberg,* Stephen A. Smith, C 4 Grasses Consortium *To whom correspondence should be addressed. erika_edwards@brown.edu (E.J.E.); c.p.osborne@sheffield.ac.uk (C.P.O.); caestrom@u.washington.edu (C.A.E.S.) This PDF file includes: Materials and Methods SOM Text Table S1 References Published 30 April 2010, Science 328, 587 (2010) DOI: /science

2 Supporting Online Material Data sources and methods for Figure 1 The simplified land cover classification for Fig. 1A was derived by grouping ISLSCP land cover categories (S1) as follows: ISLSCP no. Landcover class Fig. 1 category 1 Broadleaf evergreen forest Forest 2 Broadleaf deciduous forest / woodland Forest 3 Mix of 2 and coniferous forest Forest 4 Coniferous forest and woodland Forest 5 High latitude, deciduous forest / woodland Forest 6,8 Wooded C 4 grassland C 4 grassland 7 C 4 grassland C 4 grassland 9 Shrubs and bare ground Bare 10 Tundra Bare 11 Desert, bare ground Bare 12 Cultivation Cropland 13 Ice Bare 14 C 3 wooded grassland, shrublands C 3 grassland 15 C 3 grassland C 3 grassland Atmosphere, climate and fire Data sources and methods for Figure 2 Paleo CO 2 estimates and errors are from Royer (S2) and sources therein with the addition of stomatal frequency estimates from Kürschner et al. (S3), B/Ca ratios of surfacedwelling foraminifera from Tripati et al. (S4) and boron isotope ( 11 B) analysis of the carbonate shells of upper-ocean planktonic foraminifera from Pearson et al. (S5). Paleo relative temperature ( 18 O of foraminifera shells) estimates were compiled by Zachos et al. (S6). Northern Hemisphere ice sheet proxies include firm evidence for terrestrial glaciation (solid color) (S6) and evidence for onset of conditions permitting terrestrial glaciation (dashed color) (S7,S8). Charcoal abundance in marine sediments from various sources (S9, S10), summarized by Keeley and Rundel (S11, S12).

3 Grass fossils and molecular dates BEP = BEP clade; PAC = PACMAD clade (C 3 or C 4 ); PAC? = PACMAD clade or related; BEP+ PAC = clade that includes the BEP + PACMAD clades; B= Bambusoideae; P = Pooideae; C = Chloridoideae; Pan = Panicoideae; An = Andropogoneae; Ar = Arundinoideae. Grass fossil evidence includes phytolith assemblage data (S13) and macrofossils (S14- S19) information from USA, China, Iran, Kenya, and India. Molecular dates for origin and diversification of C 4 grass lineages and other clades mainly from Christin et al. (S20) and Vicentini et al. (S21). Data sources and methods for Figure 3 Vegetation structure, that is, the shift from forests or other grass-free environments to habitats with a substantial amount of grass (savanna, woodland, grassland, mosaic) is based on different sources of data for each region: Eastern Mediterranean (Greece-Turkey-Iran): phytolith assemblage data (S22) indicate open habitats by ~20 Ma, faunal functional morphology (mean faunal hypsodonty) support open habitats prior to 10 Ma (S23). China: palynological studies (S24, S25) show grass-dominated habitats in western north and interior of China. North America (Great Plains): phytolith assemblage data suggest a shift to open, grass-dominated habitats by the earliest Miocene (S26, S27); fossil soils support the spread of grasslands prior to the Early Miocene (S28, S29); faunal functional morphology (hypsodonty in ungulates) support grasslands by the Middle Miocene (S30-S32). Pakistan (Siwaliks): faunal functional morphology, toothwear data, and 13 C from tooth enamel (S33-S37) all indicate that parts of the landscape were grassdominated by 9.3 Ma. Kenya: faunal functional morphology, tooth wear (S38), 13 C of ungulate tooth enamel (S38), plant fossils (S15), and fossil soil data (S39-S41) support the presence of habitats dominated by grass by Ma, in light of revised geochronology of the key locality Fort Ternan (S42). Additional plant macrofossil and gastropod evidence from neighboring Uganda for grasslands at 17.5 Ma (S43). Argentina: faunal functional morphology (evolution of hypsodonty) and phytolith data suggest that the spread of open, grass-dominated habitats occurred at least by 30 Ma (S32, S44, S45). Relative abundance of C 4 in vegetation and diet is based on stable carbon isotope ratios of fossil soil carbonate nodules and ungulate tooth enamel, respectively. Sources for the raw 13 C values are listed by region:

4 Eastern Mediterranean (Greece-Turkey-Iran): fossil soil 13 C data from Quade et al (S46); ungulate tooth enamel 13 C only from three sites in Greece and Turkey (S46, S47). China: fossil soil and tooth enamel 13 C values compiled from several localities in northern China (S48). North America (Great Plains): 13 C measurements of fossil soils (S49) and ungulate tooth enamel (S50-S52) from central and southern Great Plains. Pakistan (Siwaliks): 13 C values for fossil soils from various sources (S53-S56); ungulate tooth enamel stable carbon isotope ratios from several studies (S35, S37, S52, S57). Kenya: fossil soil 13 C values from Kingston et al (S58) and Levin et al (S59), supported by 13 C of n-alkanoic acids preserved in marine sediments off the east African coast (S60). Ungulate tooth 13 C values from various sources (S35, S52, S61, S62). Argentina: fossil soil stable carbon isotope ratios are from two sites in northwestern Argentina (26-35 S) (S63); ungulate tooth enamel 13 C span a wider latitudinal range (20-50 S) (S64). For each million-year period, the maximum and minimum 13 C values were taken and plotted at the midpoint of that million-year interval (e.g., at 15.5 Ma for the interval Ma). In cases where data were only available for, for example, 15 Ma, the max and min values were plotted at 15 Ma. The raw 13 C data were converted to % C 4 in vegetation/diet using age-specific calibration values established by Passey et al (S48). The maximum isotopic value for water-stressed C 3 vegetation corresponds to ~20% C 4 biomass using canonical C 3 and C 4 end-members; this cutoff value is considered the conservative estimate for the presence of C 4. Data sources and methods for Figure 4 Phylogenetic tree reconstuction We assembled a DNA sequence matrix for Poales (4,394 taxa) using NCBI archived data from seven commonly sequenced regions for grasses from both chloroplast (atpb, matk, ndhf, rbcl, rpl16, and trnl-trnf) and nuclear (phyb, ITS) genomes using the software program PHLAWD(S65) ( All sequence alignments were conducted using Muscle (vers. 3.6) (S66). The phylogeny was constructed using RAxML (S67) with all genes partitioned, allowing each gene region to have independent parameter estimates for molecular rate matrices. We employed a GTRGAMMA model of nucleotide substitution, with a GTR substitution model and a model of among-site rate heterogeneity. For subsequent analyses we pruned Poaceae and immediate outgroups (2,684 taxa) from the larger Poales tree. The maximum likelihood Poales phylogeny ( Poales.tre ), Poaceae phylogeny ( Poaceae.tre ) and the original DNA sequence matrix (in phylip format; Poales.phy ) are available for download on Science online.

5 Character coding Photosynthetic type (C 3 vs C 4 ) for each species was determined using previously published datasets (S68-S70). Dominance was determined from a newly constructed database of all grass species that have been recorded as attaining high abundance in a grass community. Briefly, we surveyed all grassland and savanna species lists that have been compiled in a series of encyclopedic books (S71-S73), and recorded every grass species that was specifically listed as dominant by the authors. We excluded grass communities that were specialized to particularly stressful edaphic factors, such as salinity and flooding, in an attempt to capture only grass species that play significant roles in the major grasslands of the world. In a few cases, actual percentage values for abundances for the grass species were provided by the authors; however, in the majority of cases, species were simply listed as dominant. This newly compiled database is obviously very coarse, and is based largely upon subjective observations by many workers in grassland ecology over many years. Ideally, contributions to an improved global grass dominants database would adhere to a very standard and quantitative methodology of determining dominance in various communities. This current list of species is meant to be mostly illustrative, and provides a rough first attempt to explore how grassland dominants are distributed across the grass phylogeny. The list of dominant species generated from this literature search is presented in a tab-delineated text file as Supplemental Table 1. Character evolution analyses Ancestral character reconstructions were performed with maximum likelihood using the computer software program LsrDISC (S74). To test whether dominant species are phylogenetically clustered, we randomized the distributions of dominance across the tree 1,000 times to generate a null expectation of occurrences. For each simulation we scored the total path length of character change across the tree (using maximum parsimony), and compared the observed path length to the distribution of path lengths generated by the simulations. The observed number of changes fell outside of the lower tail of the simulated path length distribution, meaning that the number of actual shifts in dominance was significantly smaller than expected (p < 0.05). All simulations and path length calculations were performed using the software program Mesquite v.2.6 (S75). References: etal.islscpinitiative1. GlobalDataSetsforLandAtmospheric Models, Geochim.Cosmochim.Acta70 Proc.N at.lacad.sci.u.s.a.105 Science Nature461 Science292 etal.nature455

6 etal. Nature460 TheCarbonCycleandAtmosphericCO:NaturalVariations ArcheantoPresent Rev.Palaeobot.Palynol.77 Int.J.PlantSci.164 Ecol.Lett.8 Science310 Am.J.Bot.78 J.Paleontol.67 Nature276 Rev.Palaeobot.Palynol. 60 Geol.Soc. Am.Bull. 104 Science233 etal.curr.biol.18 Global ChangeBiol.14 Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.Palaeoecol.250 etal.distributionandmigrationoftertiarymammalsin Eurasia.AvolumeinhonourofHansdeBruijn EoceneOligoceneClimaticandBiotic Evolution etal.fossilflorasofchinathroughthegeologicalages Palaeogeogr.Palaeoclimatol.Palaeoecol.207 Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.U.S.A.102 Palaios12 J.Geol.109 Annu.Rev.Ecol.Syst.24 Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.U.S. A.97 Ann.Mo.Bot.Gard.86 J.Vertebr.Paleontol. 10 etal.geology37 Nature367 J.Vertebr.Paleontol 27 etal.proc.natl.acad.sci.u.s.a.105 J.Hum. Evol.33

7 Soilsofthepast:anintroductiontopaleopedology J.Hum.Evol.42 J.Hum.Evol.40 etal.compt.rend.geosci.338 Compt.Rend.Palevol1 etal.proc.natl.acad.sci.u.s.a.96 RevistaAsoc.Argent.Mineral.,Petrol.ySedimentog.10 Palaeogeogr.Palaeoclima tol.palaeoecol. 108 J.Hum.Evol. 28 etal. EarthPlanet. Sci.Lett.277 Geology31 etal.j.ofgeol.110 Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.Palaeoecol.107 etal.nature389 Palaeogeogr.Palaeoclimatol.Palaeoecol.115 GSABulletin107 Palaeogeogr.Palaeoclimatol.Palaeoecol. 206 etal.geol.soc.am.bull.119 Palaeogeogr.Palaeoclimatol.Palaeoecol.243 Science264 EarthPlanet.Sci.Lett.219 Geology33 Lothagam:theDawnof HumanityinAfrica etal.j.vertebr.paleontol. 16 Geol.Soc.Am.Bull.113 Palaios11 BMCEvol.Biol.9 NucleicAcidsRes. 32 Bioinformatics22 Mem.TorreyBot.Club23 C 4 PlantBiology NaturalGrasslands.EasternHemisphereandRésumé

8 TropicalSavannas NaturalGrasslands:IntroductionandWesternHemisphere LASRDisc:LikelihoodAncestralStateReconstructionforDiscrete Characters. Mesquite:amodularsystemforevolutionary analysis.

9 genus species reference page number Aeluropus littoralis S72 88 Aeluropus littoralis S Aeluropus mucronatus S72 88 Aeluropus repens S72 88 Agenium villosum S Agropyron cristatum S72 16 Agropyron cristatum S Agropyron cristatum S Agropyron dasystachyum S Agropyron dasystachyum S Agropyron elongatum S Agropyron elongatum S Agropyron pseudocaesium S Agropyron pseudocaesium S Agropyron smithii S Agropyron smithii S Agropyron smithii S Agropyron smithii S Agropyron smithii S Agropyron smithii S Agropyron smithii S Agropyron smithii S Agropyron smithii S Agropyron smithii S Agropyron smithii S Agropyron smithii S Agropyron smithii S Agropyron smithii S Agropyropsis lolium S Agrostis canina S72 92 Agrostis magellanica S Agrostis magellanica S Agrostis reinwardtii S Agrostis stolonifera S Agrostis syreistschikowii S Agrostis syreistschikowii S Agrostis tenuis S Agrostis tenuis S Agrostis tenuis S Agrostis tenuis S Agrostis tenuis S Agrostis tenuis S Agrostis tenuis S Aira carophyllea S Allopteropsis semialata S Alopecurus bulbosus S Alopecurus magellanicus S Alopecurus pratensis S Alopecurus pratensis S Alopecurus pratensis S Alopecurus pratensis S Alopecurus pratensis S

10 Alopecurus ventricosus S Andropogon aciculatus S72 95 Andropogon amboinicus S72 95 Andropogon bicornis S Andropogon bicornis S Andropogon eucomus S Andropogon gayanus S Andropogon gayanus S Andropogon gerardii S Andropogon gerardii S Andropogon gerardii S Andropogon gerardii S Andropogon gerardii S Andropogon gerardii S Andropogon gerardii S Andropogon gerardii S Andropogon gerardii S Andropogon gerardii S Andropogon gerardii S Andropogon gerardii S Andropogon hallii S Andropogon hallii S Andropogon hallii S Andropogon hirtiflorus S Andropogon hypogynus S Andropogon ischaemum S72 64 Andropogon ischaemum S72 88 Andropogon lanatus S Andropogon lateralis S Andropogon leucostachys S Andropogon leucostachys S Andropogon parviflorus S72 95 Andropogon pseudapricus S Andropogon saccharoides S Andropogon saccharoides S Andropogon saccharoides S Andropogon schirensis S Andropogon selloanus S Andropogon selloanus S Andropogon selloanus S Andropogon selloanus S Andropogon semiberbis S Andropogon tectorum S Andropogon virgatus S Andropogon virginicus S Anthephora hochstetteri S Anthoxanthum angustum S Anthoxanthum odoratum S Anthoxanthum odoratum S Anthoxanthum odoratum S Anthoxanthum odoratum S Anthoxanthum odoratum S Apluda mutica S72 449

11 Aristida adscensionis S Aristida adscensionis S Aristida adscensionis S Aristida adscensionis S Aristida adscensionis S Aristida capillacea S Aristida capillacea S Aristida coerulescens S72 88 Aristida congesta S Aristida congesta S Aristida congesta S Aristida contorta S Aristida contorta S Aristida contorta S Aristida contorta S Aristida contorta S Aristida contorta S Aristida contorta S Aristida cumingiana S72 95 Aristida cumingiana S Aristida divaricata S Aristida funiculata S Aristida hamulosa S Aristida jerichoensis S Aristida jerichoensis S Aristida latifolia S Aristida latifolia S Aristida longiflora S Aristida longiflora S Aristida longiseta S Aristida longiseta S Aristida meridionalis S Aristida murina S Aristida mutabilis S Aristida mutabilis S Aristida mutabilis S Aristida pallens S Aristida pennata S72 88 Aristida plumosa S72 88 Aristida plumosa S72 88 Aristida plumosa S72 88 Aristida pruinosa S Aristida purpurea S Aristida rufescens S Aristida rufescens S Aristida setacea S72 93 Aristida setifolia S Aristida sieberiana S Aristida similis S Aristida stipitata S Aristida ternipes S Aristida tincta S Aristida tincta S73 267

12 Arrhenatherium elatius S Arundinaria fulcata S Arundinella anomala S Arundinella bengalensis S72 91 Arundinella furva S Arundinella hookeri S72 94 Arundinella nepalensis S72 91 Arundinella setosa S72 95 Arundinella setosa S72 95 Arundinella setosa S Arundinella setosa S Arundinella setosa S Arundinella villosa S72 93 Arundo madagascarensis S72 95 Astrebla elymoides S Astrebla elymoides S Astrebla elymoides S Astrebla lappacea S Astrebla pectinata S Astrebla pectinata S Astrebla pectinata S Astrebla squarrosa S Astrebla squarrosa S Avena barbata S Avena montana S Avena pubescens S Avenastrum schellianum S Axonopus aureus S Axonopus canescens S Axonopus canescens S Axonopus canescens S Axonopus canescens S Axonopus capillaris S Axonopus chrysoblepharis S Axonopus compressus S72 96 Axonopus compressus S Axonopus pulcher S Axonopus purpusii S Axonopus purpusii S Axonopus purpusii S Bothriochloa barbinodis S Bothriochloa barbinodis S Bothriochloa bladhii S Bothriochloa decipiens S Bothriochloa decipiens S Bothriochloa ewartiana S Bothriochloa insculpta S Bothriochloa insculpta S Bothriochloa inscuplta S Bothriochloa intermedia S72 91 Bothriochloa laguroides S Bothriochloa pertusa S72 94 Bothriochloa pertusa S73 159

13 Bothriochloa pertusa S Bothriochloa radicans S Bouteloua chondrosioides S Bouteloua curtipendula S Bouteloua curtipendula S Bouteloua curtipendula S Bouteloua curtipendula S Bouteloua curtipendula S Bouteloua curtipendula S Bouteloua curtipendula S Bouteloua curtipendula S Bouteloua curtipendula S Bouteloua curtipendula S Bouteloua curtipendula S Bouteloua eriopoda S Bouteloua filiformis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua gracilis S Bouteloua hirsuta S Bouteloua hirsuta S Bouteloua hirsuta S Bouteloua hirsuta S Bouteloua megapotamica S Bouteloua rothrockii S Bouteloua scorpioides S Brachiaria brizantha S Brachiaria distachya S72 93 Brachiaria leucantha S Brachiaria mutica S Brachiaria nigropedata S72 274

14 Brachiaria serrata S Brachiaria serrata S Brachyachne convergens S Brachypodium pinnatum S Brachypodium pinnatum S Brachypodium pinnatum S Brachypodium pinnatum S Briza brizoides S Briza media S Briza media S Bromus erectus S Bromus erectus S Bromus erectus S Bromus inermis S Bromus inermis S Bromus rigidus S Bromus riparius S Bromus riparius S Bromus rubens S Bromus sibericus S Bromus squarrosus S Bromus sterilis S Bromus tomentellus S72 88 Bromus unioloides S Buchloë dactyloides S Buchloë dactyloides S Buchloë dactyloides S Buchloë dactyloides S Buchloë dactyloides S Buchloë dactyloides S Buchloë dactyloides S Buchloë dactyloides S Buchloë dactyloides S Buchloë dactyloides S Buchloë dactyloides S Buchloë dactyloides S Buchloë dactyloides S Buchloë dactyloides S Calamagrostis arundinacea S Calamagrostis canadensis S Calamagrostis epigeios S72 64 Calamagrostis epigeios S Calamagrostis epigeios S Calamagrostis inexpansa S Calamagrostis inexpansa S Calamagrostis langsdorfii S Calamovilfa gigantica S Calamovilfa longifolia S Calamovilfa longifolia S Calamovilfa longifolia S Calamovilfa longifolia S Capillipedium parviflorum S72 96 Capillipedium parviflorum S72 96

15 Capillipedium parviflorum S72 96 Capillipedium parvifolium S Cenchrus biflorus S Cenchrus biflorus S Cenchrus ciliaris S72 88 Cenchrus ciliaris S72 89 Cenchrus ciliaris S72 89 Cenchrus ciliaris S72 91 Cenchrus ciliaris S Cenchrus ciliaris S Cenchrus ciliaris S Cenchrus ciliaris S Cenchrus ciliaris S Cenchrus ciliaris S Cenchrus ciliaris S Cenchrus setigerus S72 91 Chionochloa antarctica S Chionochloa archiboldii S Chionochloa archiboldii S Chionochloa australis S Chionochloa crassiuscula S Chionochloa flavescens S Chionochloa macra S Chionochloa oreophila S Chionochloa pallens S Chionochloa pallens S Chionochloa rigida S Chionochloa rigida S Chionochloa rubra S Chloris acicularis S Chloris acicularis S Chloris barbata S72 93 Chloris barbata S Chloris berroi S Chloris ciliata S Chloris gayana S Chloris incompleta S Chloris roxburghiana S Chloris truncata S Chloris truncata S Chloris truncata S Chloris virgata S Chloris virgata S Chrysopogon aciculatus S72 93 Chrysopogon aciculatus S72 93 Chrysopogon aciculatus S72 94 Chrysopogon aciculatus S72 94 Chrysopogon aciculatus S72 96 Chrysopogon aciculatus S72 96 Chrysopogon aciculatus S72 96 Chrysopogon aciculatus S72 96 Chrysopogon aucheri S72 89 Chrysopogon fallax S72 321

16 Chrysopogon fallax S Chrysopogon fallax S Chrysopogon fulvus S72 89 Chrysopogon fulvus S72 89 Chrysopogon fulvus S72 91 Chrysopogon gryllus S72 91 Chrysopogon gryllus S72 92 Chrysopogon plumulosus S Chrysopogon plumulosus S Chrysopogon plumulosus S Chrysopogon plumulosus S Chrysopogon schoenanthus S72 89 Chrysopogon serrulatus S72 89 Chrysopogon zeylanicus S72 93 Cleistogenes songorica S72 16 Cleistogenes squarrosa S72 16 Coelorachis glandulosa S72 96 Coelorhachis rottboellioides S Coelorhachis rottboellioides S Cortaderia selloana S Ctenium chapadense S Ctenium elegans S Ctenium newtonii S Cymbopogon afronardus S Cymbopogon excavatus S Cymbopogon laniger S72 88 Cymbopogon nardus S72 93 Cymbopogon nardus S72 93 Cymbopogon nardus S72 93 Cymbopogon nardus S72 93 Cymbopogon nardus S72 95 Cymbopogon nardus S Cymbopogon nardus S Cymbopogon plurinodis S Cymbopogon procerus S Cymbopogon proximus S Cynodon dactylon S72 92 Cynodon dactylon S72 94 Cynodon dactylon S72 94 Cynodon dactylon S72 94 Cynodon dactylon S72 96 Cynodon dactylon S Cynodon dactylon S Cynodon dactylon S Cynodon dactylon S Cynodon dactylon S Cynodon hirsutus S Cynodon plectostachyus S Cynodon plectostachyus S Cynosurus cristatus S Cynosurus cristatus S Cyrtococcum patens S72 96 Cyrtococcum trigonum S72 96

17 Cyrtococcum trigonum S72 96 Dactylis glomerata S Dactylis glomerata S Dactylis glomerata S Dactylis glomerata S Dactylis glomerata S Dactylis hispanica S Dactyloctenium aegyptium S72 93 Dactyloctenium aegyptium S Dactyloctenium radulans S Dactyloctenium radulans S Dactyloctenium radulans S Danthonia auriculata S Danthonia cachemyriana S72 92 Danthonia caespitosa S Danthonia caespitosa S Danthonia carphoides S Danthonia nudiflora S Danthonia pallida S Deschampsia antarctica S Deschampsia caespitosa S Deschampsia caespitosa S Deschampsia flexuosa S Deschampsia flexuosa S Deschampsia klossii S Deschampsia klossii S Deschampsia penicillata S Desmostachya bipinnata S Deyeuxia brassii S Deyeuxia viridiflavescens S Dichanthium annulatum S72 91 Dichanthium annulatum S72 91 Dichanthium annulatum S72 94 Dichanthium annulatum S72 94 Dichanthium annulatum S Dichanthium fecundum S Dichanthium sericeum S Dichanthium sericeum S Dichanthium tenuiculum S Diectomis fastigiata S Digitaria abyssinica S Digitaria abyssinica S Digitaria abyssinica S Digitaria adscendens S72 93 Digitaria adscendens S72 95 Digitaria bifasciculata S Digitaria californica S Digitaria californica S Digitaria commutata S Digitaria didactyla S Digitaria eriantha S Digitaria eriantha S Digitaria eriantha S72 274

18 Digitaria leucites S Digitaria longiflora S72 93 Digitaria macroblephara S Digitaria marginata S72 96 Digitaria milanjiana S Digitaria ropalotricha S72 95 Digitaria sanguinalis S Digitaria setivalva S Digitaria velutina S Diheteropogon amplectens S Diheteropogon filifolius S Diheteropogon filifolius S Diheteropogon hagerupii S Dimeria lehmannii S72 92 Echinochloa colona S Echinochloa crusgalli S72 96 Echinochloa pyramidalis S Echinochloa pyramidalis S Echinochloa stagnina S Echinolaena inflexa S Echinolaena inflexa S Echinolaena inflexa S Eleusine compressa S72 89 Eleusine floccifolia S Eleusine jaegeri S Eleusine tristachya S Elionurus adustus S Elionurus barbiculmis S Elionurus elegans S Elionurus latiflorus S Elionurus muticus S Elionurus muticus S Elymus canadensis S Elymus canadensis S Elymus canadensis S Elymus canadensis S Elymus canadensis S Elymus delilaenus S Elymus delilaenus S Elymus rectisetus S Enneapogon avenaceus S Enneapogon brachystachyus S Enneapogon cenchroides S Enneapogon cenchroides S Enneapogon persicus S72 89 Enneapogon polyphyllus S Enneapogon polyphyllus S Enneapogon polyphyllus S Enneapogon scaber S Enneapogon scoparius S Eragrostis barteri S Eragrostis capensis S Eragrostis chloromelas S72 272

19 Eragrostis cilianensis S Eragrostis ciliaris S Eragrostis dielsii S Eragrostis dielsii S Eragrostis dielsii S Eragrostis eriopoda S Eragrostis gummiflua S Eragrostis intermedia S Eragrostis lanipes S Eragrostis lehmanniana S Eragrostis lehmanniana S Eragrostis maypurensis S Eragrostis obtusa S Eragrostis pallens S Eragrostis pallens S Eragrostis plana S Eragrostis rigidior S Eragrostis tenella S Eragrostis tremula S Eragrostis trichodes S Eragrostis uniloides S Eragrostis xerophila S Eragrostis xerophila S Eragrostis eriopoda S Eragrostis eriopoda S Eragrostis helmsii S Eremopogon foveolatus S Eriachne aristidea S Eriachne helmsii S Eriachne helmsii S Erianthus ravennae S72 94 Eriosema psoraloides S Eulalia aurea S Eulalia cumingii S Eulalia leptostachys S Eulalia leptostachys S Eulalia leptostachys S Eulalia phaeothrix S72 93 Eulalia tristachya S Festuca contracta S Festuca elatior S Festuca kryloviana S72 16 Festuca lenensis S72 16 Festuca lenensis S Festuca mairei S Festuca matthewsii S Festuca novae-zelandiae S Festuca octoflora S Festuca ovina S72 64 Festuca ovina S Festuca ovina S Festuca ovina S Festuca ovina S72 158

20 Festuca ovina S Festuca papuana S Festuca pratensis S Festuca pratensis S Festuca pratensis S Festuca pratensis S Festuca pseudovina S Festuca rubra S Festuca rubra S Festuca rubra S Festuca rubra S Festuca rubra S Festuca rubra S Festuca rubra S Festuca rubra S Festuca rubra S Festuca rubra S Festuca rubra S Festuca rupicola S Festuca scabrela S Festuca scabrella S Festuca valesiaca S72 88 Festuca valesiaca S Festuca valesiaca S Festuca valesiaca S72 14 Heteropogon contortus S72 89 Heteropogon contortus S72 89 Heteropogon contortus S72 89 Heteropogon contortus S72 91 Heteropogon contortus S72 93 Heteropogon contortus S72 96 Heteropogon contortus S72 96 Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon contortus S Heteropogon triticeus S Hetropogon contortus S Hierochloë redolens S Hilaria belangeri S Hilaria jamesii S74 191

21 Hilaria jamesii S Holcus lanatus S Holcus lanatus S Holcus lanatus S Holcus lanatus S Hordeum brevisubulatum S Hordeum brevisubulatum S Hordeum jubatum S Hordeum maritimum S Hordeum murinum S Hordeum murinum S Hordeum pusillum S Hyparrhenia cymbaria S Hyparrhenia cymbaria S Hyparrhenia cymbaria S Hyparrhenia cymbaria S Hyparrhenia cymbaria S Hyparrhenia diplandra S Hyparrhenia diplandra S Hyparrhenia dissoluta S Hyparrhenia eberhardtii S72 95 Hyparrhenia filipendula S Hyparrhenia filipendula S Hyparrhenia filipendula S Hyparrhenia hirta S72 88 Hyparrhenia hirta S Hyparrhenia hirta S Hyparrhenia hirta S Hyparrhenia rufa S Hyparrhenia rufa S Hyparrhenia rufa S Hyparrhenia rufa S Hyparrhenia rufa S Hyparrhenia rufa S Hyparrhenia rufa S Hyparrhenia rufa S Hyparrhenia rufa S Hyparrhenia rufa S Hyperthelia dissoluta S Hyperthelia dissoluta S Hyperthelia dissoluta S Hyperthelia dissoluta S Hyperthelia dissoluta S Hyperthelia newtonii S Imperata brasilensis S Imperata cylindrica S72 93 Imperata cylindrica S72 93 Imperata cylindrica S72 94 Imperata cylindrica S72 94 Imperata cylindrica S72 94 Imperata cylindrica S72 95 Imperata cylindrica S72 95 Imperata cylindrica S72 95

22 Imperata cylindrica S72 95 Imperata cylindrica S72 95 Imperata cylindrica S72 96 Imperata cylindrica S72 96 Imperata cylindrica S72 96 Imperata cylindrica S72 96 Imperata cylindrica S72 96 Imperata cylindrica S72 96 Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylindrica S Imperata cylndrica S72 95 Ischaemum angustifolium S72 94 Ischaemum barbatum S Ischaemum indicum S72 92 Ischaemum indicum S72 93 Ischaemum muticum S Iseilema laxum S72 94 Iseilema membranaceum S Iseilema vaginiflorum S Kerriochloa siamensis S Koeleria cristata S72 92 Koeleria cristata S Koeleria cristata S Koeleria cristata S Koeleria cristata S Koeleria delavignei S Koeleria delavignei S Koeleria gracilis S Koeleria gracilis S Koeleria macrantha S72 16 Koeleria pubescens S Koeleria pyramidata S Koeleria splendens S Koeleria vallesiaca S Lasiurus hirsutus S72 89 Lasiurus hirsutus S72 91 Lasiurus hirsutus S Lasiurus hirsutus S Leersia hexandra S73 257

23 Leersia hexandra S Leptochloa dubia S Leptocoryphiim lanatum S Leptocoryphium lanatum S Leptocoryphium lanatum S Leptocoryphium lanatum S Leptocoryphium lanatum S Leptocoryphium lanatum S Leptocoryphium lanatum S Leptocoryphium lanatum S Leptocoryphium lanatum S Leptocoryphium lanatum S Leptothrium senegalense S Leymus chinensis S72 64 Lolium multiflorum S Lolium perenne S Lolium perenne S Lolium rigidum S Lolium rigidum S Lolium temulentum S Loudetia arundinacea S Loudetia demeusei S Loudetia filifolia S Loudetia kagerensis S Loudetia kagerensis S Loudetia simplex S Loudetia simplex S Loudetia simplex S Loudetia simplex S Loudetia simplex S Loudetia simplex S Loudetia togoensis S Loudetia simplex S Lycurus phleoides S Lygeum spartum S Manisuris clarkei S72 96 Melica brasiliana S Melica transsilvanica S Mesosetum cayennense S Mesosetum loliforme S Mesosetum rottboellioides S Miscanthus floridulus S Miscanthus floridulus S Miscanthus floridulus S Miscanthus floridulus S Miscanthus floridulus S Miscanthus floridulus S Miscanthus floridulus S Miscanthus floridulus S Miscanthus pupurascens S Miscanthus sinensis S Molinia caerula S Molinia caerula S72 158

24 Monachather paradoxa S Monachather paradoxa S Monachather paradoxa S Monachather paradoxa S Monocymbium ceresiiforme S Monostachya oreoboloides S Muhlenbergia capillaris S Muhlenbergia emersleyi S Muhlenbergia porteri S Muhlenbergia rigida S Munroa squarosa S Nardus stricta S Nardus stricta S Nardus stricta S Nardus stricta S Nardus stricta S Ophiuros tongcalingii S Ophiuros tongcalingii S Oplismenus burmannii S Oropetium capense S Oryza barthii S Oryza sativa S Oryzopsis aequiglumis S72 89 Oryzopsis holciformis S72 88 Oryzopsis hymenoides S Oryzopsis miliacea S Oryzopsis munroi S72 89 Panicum antidotale S72 89 Panicum cayenense S Panicum decompositum S Panicum infestum S Panicum laxum S Panicum lutescens S72 95 Panicum luzonense S72 96 Panicum maximum S Panicum maximum S Panicum maximum S Panicum maximum S Panicum maximum S Panicum maximum S Panicum maximum S Panicum maximum S Panicum millegrana S Panicum olyroides S Panicum orientale S72 89 Panicum pseudovoeltzkowii S Panicum pseudovoeltzkowii S Panicum pulchellum S Panicum repens S72 95 Panicum rudgei S Panicum sarmentosum S72 96 Panicum stenodes S Panicum stenodes S73 268

25 Panicum turgidum S72 91 Panicum turgidum S Panicum turgidum S Panicum turgidum S Panicum umbellatum S Panicum urvilleanum S Panicum versicolor S Panicum virgatum S Panicum virgatum S Panicum virgatum S Panicum virgatum S Panicum virgatum S Panicum virgatum S Panicum virgatum S Panicum virgatum S Panicum virgatum S Panicum virgatum S Panicum virgatum S Pappophorum persicum S72 88 Paspalidium constrictum S Paspalidium flavidum S72 94 Paspalidium flavidum S Paspalum carinatum S Paspalum carinatum S Paspalum carinatum S Paspalum chaffanjonii S Paspalum conjugatum S72 95 Paspalum conjugatum S72 96 Paspalum conjugatum S72 96 Paspalum densum S Paspalum dilatatum S72 96 Paspalum dilatatum S72 96 Paspalum dilatatum S72 96 Paspalum dilatatum S72 96 Paspalum dilatatum S Paspalum dilatatum S Paspalum distichum S72 94 Paspalum gardnerianum S Paspalum gardnerianum S Paspalum minus S Paspalum multicaule S Paspalum notatum S Paspalum notatum S Paspalum nudatum S Paspalum pectinatum S Paspalum pectinatum S Paspalum pectinatum S Paspalum plicatulum S Paspalum plicatulum S Paspalum plicatulum S Paspalum plicatulum S Paspalum pulchellum S Paspalum pulchellum S73 267

26 Paspalum pulchellum S Paspalum punctatum S Paspalum quadrifarium S Paspalum scorbiculatum S Paspalum scrobiculatum S72 95 Paspalum stellatum S Pennisetum asperifolium S Pennisetum clandestinum S Pennisetum clandestinum S Pennisetum dichotomum S72 88 Pennisetum dichotomum S Pennisetum dichotomum S Pennisetum macrostachyum S Pennisetum orientale S72 89 Pennisetum pedicellatum S Pennisetum polystachyon S Pennisetum polystachyon S Pennisetum polystachyon S Pennisetum purpureum S Pennisetum purpureum S Pennisetum purpureum S Pennisetum ramosum S Pennisetum sphacelatum S Pennisetum unisetum S Perotis hildebrandtii S Phalaris arundinacea S Phalaris canariensis S Phalaris coerulescens S Phalaris minor S Phalaris truncata S Phleum alpinum S72 92 Phleum alpinum S72 94 Phleum alpinum S Phleum phleoides S Phleum phleoides S Phleum phleoides S Phleum phleoides S Phleum pratense S Phleum pratense S Phleum pratense S Phleum pratense S Phleum pratense S Phragmites communis S Phragmites communis S Phragmites karka S72 94 Phragmites karka S Phragmites karka S Piptochaetium bicolor S Piptochaetium lejopodum S Piptochaetium montevidense S Piptochaetium napostaense S Plectrachne melvillei S Plectrachne pungens S72 321

27 Plectrachne pungens S Plectrachne schinzii S Plectrachne schinzii S Poa alpigena S72 94 Poa alpina S72 64 Poa angustifolia S Poa annua S72 94 Poa attenuata S72 16 Poa attenuata S Poa bonariensis S Poa botryoides S72 16 Poa bulbosa S72 88 Poa bulbosa S72 88 Poa bulbosa S Poa callosa S Poa cita S Poa colensoi S Poa colensoi S Poa cookii S Poa costiniana S Poa fawcettiae S Poa flabellata S Poa flabellata S Poa flabellata S Poa foliosa S Poa hiemata S Poa labillardieri S Poa lanigera S Poa ligularis S Poa ligularis S Poa litorosa S Poa nemoralis S Poa pratensis S72 92 Poa pratensis S Poa pratensis S Poa pratensis S Poa pratensis S Poa subfastigiata S Pogonarthria squarrosa S Pogonarthria squarrosa S Pogonatherum paniceum S72 95 Pseudopogonatherum irritans S Pseudopogonotherum sp S72 96 Pseudoraphis spinescens S Puccinellia distans S Puccinellia kashmiriana S72 92 Saccharum spontaneum S72 94 Saccharum spontaneum S72 94 Saccharum spontaneum S72 95 Saccharum spontaneum S72 95 Saccharum spontaneum S Saccharum spontaneum S Saccharum spontaneum S72 449

28 Saccharum spontaneum S Saccharum sponteneum S72 95 Saccharum sponteneum S72 95 Sasa chokaiensis S Sasa nipponica S Sasa veitchii S Schedonnardus paniculatus S Schizachyrium brevifolium S72 95 Schizachyrium brevifolium S Schizachyrium cirratum S Schizachyrium condensatum S Schizachyrium fragile S Schizachyrium hirtiflorum S Schizachyrium sanguineum S Schizachyrium schweinfurthii S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schizachyrium scoparium S Schmidtia pappophoroides S Schoenefeldia gracilis S Schoenfeldia gracilis S Secale montanum S72 88 Sehima nervosum S72 91 Sehima nervosum S72 93 Sehima nervosum S Sehima nervosum S Sehima nervosum S Setaria anceps S Setaria flabellata S Setaria geniculata S Setaria geniculata S Setaria glauca S72 94 Setaria glauca S Setaria incrassata S Setaria pallidefusca S72 94 Setaria sphacelata S72 230

29 Setaria sphacelata S Sieglingia decumbens S Sorghastrum nutans S Sorghastrum nutans S Sorghastrum nutans S Sorghastrum nutans S Sorghastrum nutans S Sorghastrum nutans S Sorghastrum nutans S Sorghastrum nutans S Sorghastrum nutans S Sorghastrum nutans S Sorghastrum nutans S Sorghastrum parviflorum S Sorghastrum parviflorum S Sorghastrum parviflorum S Sorghastrum pellitum S Sorghum intrans S Sorghum nitidum S72 93 Sorghum nitidum S Sorghum plumosum S Sorghum serratum S72 95 Sorghum serratum S Sorghum stipoideum S Spartina arundinacea S Spartina pectinata S Spartina pectinata S Spartina pectinata S Spartina pectinata S Sporobolus airoides S Sporobolus asper S Sporobolus australasicus S Sporobolus berterianus S72 95 Sporobolus capensis S Sporobolus caroli S Sporobolus cryptandrus S Sporobolus cryptandrus S Sporobolus cryptandrus S Sporobolus cryptandrus S Sporobolus cubensis S Sporobolus cubensis S Sporobolus diander S72 95 Sporobolus helvolus S Sporobolus heterolepis S Sporobolus heterolepis S Sporobolus heterolepis S Sporobolus indicus S Sporobolus ioclados S Sporobolus ioclados S Sporobolus pyramidalis S Sporobolus pyramidalis S Sporobolus pyramidalis S Sporobolus pyramidalis S72 273

30 Sporobolus pyramidatus S Sporobolus sileanus S Sporobolus somalensis S Sporobolus virginicus S Stenotaphrum dimidiatum S Stipa aristiglumis S Stipa aristiglumis S Stipa baicalensis S72 16 Stipa baicalensis S72 64 Stipa barbata S72 88 Stipa barbata S72 88 Stipa barbata S72 88 Stipa barbata S Stipa bigeniculata S Stipa breviflora S72 64 Stipa bungeana S72 64 Stipa capensis S Stipa capillata S Stipa charruana S Stipa clarazii S Stipa comata S Stipa comata S Stipa comata S Stipa comata S Stipa comata S Stipa comata S Stipa comata S Stipa comata S Stipa comata S Stipa dasyphylla S72 14 Stipa falcata S Stipa filiculmis S Stipa glareosa S72 16 Stipa glareosa S72 64 Stipa globica S72 16 Stipa globica S72 64 Stipa grandis S72 16 Stipa grandis S72 64 Stipa hyalina S Stipa klemenzii S72 16 Stipa klemenzii S72 64 Stipa korshinskyi S72 14 Stipa krylovii S72 16 Stipa krylovii S72 64 Stipa lagascae S Stipa lagascae S Stipa lessingiana S72 14 Stipa megapotamica S Stipa neesiana S Stipa neesiana S Stipa neesiana S Stipa neesiana S Stipa neomexicana S74 192

31 Stipa papposa S Stipa parviflora S Stipa pennata S72 14 Stipa philippii S Stipa pulcherrima S72 14 Stipa purpurea S72 64 Stipa setacea S Stipa spartea S Stipa spartea S Stipa spartea S Stipa spartea S Stipa spartea S Stipa spartea S Stipa spartea S Stipa szowitsiana S72 89 Stipa tenacissima S Stipa tenuis S Stipa tenuissima S Stipa tenuissima S Stipa trichotoma S Stipa trichotoma S Stipa variabilis S Stipa variabilis S Stipa viridula S Stipa viridula S Stipa viridula S Stipa viridula S Stipa zalesskii S72 06-Sep Stipa brachychaeta S Stipagrostis ciliata S Stipagrostis ciliata S Stipagrostis gonadostachys S Stipagrostis obtusa S Stipagrostis obtusa S Stipagrostis obtusa S Stipagrostis pennata S Stipagrostis pennata S Stipagrostis plumosa S Stipagrostis plumosa S Stipagrostis pungens S Stipagrostis pungens S Tetrapogon bidentatus S Tetrapogon villosus S72 89 Themeda anathera S72 89 Themeda anathera S72 89 Themeda anathera S72 91 Themeda anathera S72 92 Themeda arguens S72 93 Themeda arundinaceae S72 95 Themeda australis S Themeda australis S Themeda australis S Themeda australis S72 340

32 Themeda australis S Themeda australis S Themeda australis S Themeda australis S Themeda avenacea S Themeda gigantea S72 95 Themeda gigantea S72 95 Themeda gigantea S Themeda hookeri S72 94 Themeda quadrivalvis S Themeda quadrivalvis S Themeda tremula S72 92 Themeda tremula S72 93 Themeda triandra S72 64 Themeda triandra S72 96 Themeda triandra S72 96 Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Themeda triandra S Thrasya paspaloides S Thrasya petrosa S Thyridolepis mithcelliana S Thyridolepis mithcelliana S Thyridolepis mithcelliana S Thysanolaena maxima S Trachypogon angustifolius S Trachypogon canescens S Trachypogon ligularis S Trachypogon ligularis S Trachypogon montufari S Trachypogon plumosus S Trachypogon plumosus S Trachypogon plumosus S Trachypogon plumosus S Trachypogon plumosus S Trachypogon plumosus S Trachypogon plumosus S73 268

33 Trachypogon secundus S Trachypogon spicatus S Trachypogon spicatus S Trachypogon vestitius S Trachypogon vestitius S Trachypogon vestitus S Trachypogon vestitus S Tridens brasiliensis S Triodia basedowii S Triodia basedowii S Triodia basedowii S Triodia basedowii S Triodia lanigera S Triodia longiceps S Triodia mitchellii S Triodia pungens S Triodia pungens S Triodia pungens S Triodia wiseana S Tripsacum dactyloides S Tripsacum dactyloides S Trisetum flavescens S Trisetum flavescens S Tristachya leiostachya S Tristachya leucothrix S Urochloa mosambicensis S Urochloa mozambicensis S Urochloa panicoides S Urochloa panicoides S Vetiveria fulvibarbis S Viguirella madagascariensis S Vulpia myuros S Vulpiella stipoides S Xerochloa barbata S Xerochloa imberbis S Zoysia japonica S Zygochloa paradoxa S72 321