Chapter 2 Minor Millets: Profile & Ethnobotany

Transcription

1 Chapter 2 Minor Millets: Profile & Ethnobotany 2.1 Minor millets: Today and tomorrow Millets are small-seeded grasses that are hardy and grow well in dry zones as rain-fed crops, under marginal conditions of soil fertility and moisture. Millets are one of the oldest foods known to humans and possibly the first cereal grain to be used for domestic purposes. Millets are also unique due to their short growing season. They can develop from planted seeds to mature, ready to harvest plants in as little as 65 days. This is important in heavily populated areas. When properly stored, millets will keep for two or more years. They are highly nutritious, non-glutinous and no acid forming foods. Hence, they are soothing and easy to digest. They are considered to be the least allergenic and most digestible grains available. Compared to rice, especially polished rice, millets release lesser percentage of glucose and over a longer period of time. Millets are particularly high in minerals like iron, magnesium, phosphorous and potassium. Barnyard millet is the richest in calcium content, about 10 times that of rice or wheat. Cereal grains are considered to be one of the most important sources of dietary proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals and fibre for people all over the world. It is mentioned in the Bible, and was used during those times to make bread. Millet has been used in Africa and India as a staple food for thousands of years. It is suggested that people were farming millet in India about 2500 B.C. India is the largest producer of many kinds of millets called coarse cereals. India accounts for 40% of global millet production, the total production as per year 2014 statistics, it is 12, thd. mt per annum [1]. Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Haryana are the major States contribute the production. Based on a five-year average, India ranks 1st and 11th place in top global consumption and per-capita Page 47

2 consumption of millets respectively. An increasing trend is observed in the production of millet since 1960 to 2014 in India. Today millet ranks as the sixth most important grain in the world, sustains 1/3 of the world s population and is a significant part of the diet in northern China, Japan, Manchuria and various areas of the former Soviet Union, Africa, India, and Egypt. Among the major and minor millets, the minor millets include 6 main grain crops, which are Eleusine coracana (ragi or finger millet), Paspalum scrobiculatum (varagu or kodo millet), Panicum sumatrense (samai or little millet), Setaria italica (tenai or foxtail millet), Panicum milliaceum (panivaragu or proso millet), and Echinochloa frumentacea (kudiraivali or barnyard millet). Name f millet in different languages are summarised in table 2.1. Table 2.1 Name of millets in different languages Small millets in addition to nutritional benefits are rich in phytochemicals, including phytic acid, which is believed to lower cholesterol, and phytate, which is associated with cancer risk. Eleusine coracana and Paspalum scrobiculatum are well knownn for their antinutrient constituents such as trypsin inhibitors, phytates, phenols and tannins. Dietary fiber protects against hyperglycemia, phytates against oxidation stress by chelating iron involved in Fenton s Page 4

3 reaction, and some phenolics and tannins act as antioxidants. Higher antioxidant activity in the phenolic extracts of Paspalum scrobiculatum and Eleusine coracana than in other millets and cereals has been reported. Small millets have potential benefits to mitigate or delay the onset of complications associated with diabetes. Phenolic acids are known to act as antioxidants by donating hydrogen or electrons. In addition, their stable radical intermediates prevent the oxidation of various food ingredients, particularly fatty acids and oils. The presence of phenolic acids in cereal grains has been confirmed in several studies. The polyphenolic contents in cereals is usually less than 1% of dry matter, except for some sorghum cultivars and finger millet varieties. Fortification of diet with food components rich in phenolic acids has been shown to impart antimutagenic, antiglycemic and antioxidative properties, and this has been exploited for the development of healthy food formulations. In addition, phenolic acids such as caffeic, coumaric, ferulic and proto-catechuic acids are also shown to exert an antifungal effect. Polyphenols are also used as a source of potentially beneficial phytochemicals in the food and pharmaceutical industries [2]. The consumption pattern for minor millets varies from region to region. In Southern Karnataka, 100% of the rural population and 94% of the urban population consume Eleusine coracana as a traditional food called Mudde or Thick porridge. Paspalum scrobiculatum is an important food crop for vast sections of the tribal community in Central India. The people in Himalayan foot-hills use millet as a cereal, in soups, and for making dense, whole grain bread called Chapatti. In India flat thin cakes called Roti are often made from millet flour and used as the basis for meals. Eleusine coracana is the cereal of choice for the preparation of porridges for children and for the sick and old in India. Germinated Eleusine coracana is used to make weaning foods for infants. Eleusine coracana can be used for the preparation of popped products in India. Some rural and tribal populations of South India consume Setaria italica. The tribal people in Kumaon hills, Page 4

4 Northern India consumes weaning food containing malted Setaria italica flour and malted Echinochloa crusgalli flour. Mostly minor millets consumed by the economically weaker section of the populations in India. However, all communities of people should be aware of importance and health benefits of small millets. 2.2 Plant morphology [phytomorphology] Millet morphology is the general term for the study of the physical form and external structure of plants. This is usually considered distinct from plant anatomy, which is the study of the internal structure of plants, especially at the microscopic level. Plant morphology is useful in the identification of millet seeds. We carried out morphological study of Echinochloa crus-galli, Panicum miliaceum L. and Panicum sumatrense [3]. Table 2.2 summarized the plant classification of Echinochloa crus-galli Echinochloa crus-galli (Barnyard Millet): General Information of Echinochloa crus-galli Basic information of Echinochloa crus-galli is summarised in table 2.4 Table 2.2 Preliminary information about Echinochloa crus-galli Sr. No. Classification Scientific Name 1 Botanical name Echinochloa crus-galli 2 Kingdom: Plantae [unranked]: Angiosperms [unranked]: Monocots [unranked]: Commelinids 3 Order: Poales 4 Family: Poaceae 5 Subfamily: Panicoideae 6 Tribe: Paniceae 7 Genus: Echinochloa 8 Species: P.Beauv. Page

5 Origin and geographic distribution Echinochloa crus-galli (Barnyard millet) is an old crop, grown since 5000 B.C. in India and 3000 B.C. in China. It probably evolved from the wild Echinochloa crus-galli P. Beauv. (Green Setaria italica (L.), and it was most probably first domesticated in the highlands of central China, from where it was spreaded to China and Europe soon thereafter. Its domestication may have taken place anywhere in the area extending from Europe to Japan, perhaps even several times independently [4]. Echinochloa crus-galli was the panicum of the Romans. At present, Echinochloa crus-galli is cultivated all over the world. In tropical Africa, it is cultivated to a limited extent in upland areas in East Africa and occasionally recorded elsewhere, e.g. in Cameroon and southern Africa (Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique)[5, 6] Botanical description Echinochloa crus-galli is an annual with rather stiff and erect stems, ordinarily from two to four feet high, but sometimes reaching a height of six feet or more. The leaves arc is broad and somewhat similar in size and texture to those of Echinochloa crus-galli. From the latter, however, this plant is easily distinguished, even when very young, by its lack of hairiness. Figure 2.1 depicted here indicates the various part of Echinochloa crus-galli. The inflorescence is a contracted panicle, often nodding at the top; on account of its short branches it resembles a spike. Its lower branches, as a rule, are not so close together as the upper ones. The spikelet are crowded and mixed with stiff bristles, the latter representing branches on which no spikelet are developed [7, 8]. Echinochloa species are the dominant weed species in direct seeded rice-based cropping systems. They are also an example of crop mimicry as they resemble the rice crop at the seedling stage. By the time weeds are easily distinguished by farmers, crop yield losses have already occurred. Echinochloa crus-galli was reported to reduce yield of direct-seeded rice by more than 75% [9]. Page

6 Minor Millets: profile and Ethnobotany Figure 2.1 Various part of Echinochloa crus-galli (Barnyard Barnyard Mille) Composition The table 2.3 shows composition of Echinochloa crus-galli galli grain per 100 g edible. Table 2.3 shows composition of Echinochloa crus-galli grain per 100 g edible. No Ingredients Quantity /100g 1 Water 12 g 2 Protein 3 Fat 4 Carbohydrate 5 Crude fibre 6 Calcium 31 mg, 7 Iron 2.8 mg 8 Thiamine 0.6 mg 9 Riboflavin 0.1 mg 10 Niacin 3.2 mg 11 Tryptophan 103 mg 12 Lysine 233 mg 13 Methionine 296 mg 14 Phenylalanine 708 mg 15 Threonine 328 mg 16 Valine 728 mg 17 Leucine 1764 mg 18 Isoleucine 803 mg 19 Energy 11.2 g 4.0 g 63.2 g 6.7 g 1470 kj (351 kcal) Page 2

7 Edible Uses Seed cooked. It can be eaten as a sweet or savoury food in all the ways that rice is used, or ground into flour and made into porridge, cakes, puddings etc. The seed can also be sprouted before it is used, when it will become somewhat sweeter Medicinal Uses The germinated seed of yellow-seeded cultivars is astringent, digestive, emollient and stomachic. It is used in the treatment of dyspepsia, poor digestion and food stagnancy in the abdomen. White seeds are refrigerant and used in the treatment of cholera and fever. Green seeds are diuretic and strengthening to virility [10, 11] Panicum miliaceum L. (Proso Millet) : General Information of Panicum miliaceum L. Basic information of Panicum miliaceum L. is summarised in table 2.4 Table 2.4 Preliminary information about Panicum miliaceum L. Sr. No. Classification Scientific Name 1 Botanical name Panicum miliaceum (L.) 2 Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Monocots (unranked): Commelinids 3 Order: Poales 4 Family: Poaceae 5 Subfamily: Panicoideae 6 Tribe: Paniceae 7 Genus: Panicum 8 Species: P. miliaceum Origin and geographic description Panicum miliaceum L. Is an old crop, grown since 5500 B.C. in India and China. It was most probably first domesticated in China, from Page

8 where it spread to Europe and Africa thereafter. [12] Its domestication may have taken place anywhere in the area extending from Europe to Japan, perhaps even several times independently. Panicumm miliaceum L. has remained a grain crop in Asia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Argentina. It is occasionally grown as a grain crop in Europe and Africa. At present, Panicum P miliaceum L. is cultivated all over the world [13]. Panicum miliaceum L. (Broomcorn millet) is an annual herbaceous plant in the general Panicum L. of the family Gramineae. This crop, which originated in China, has been cultivated for over 7,000 years and currently planted mainly in the northern part of China, including the northwest and northeast regions. Broomcorn millet is a type of short-day C4 plant with thermophilic and photophilic responses, and it can be adapted to various types of soils particularly sandy soils with low fertility. As the resistance of broomcorn millet to salt, alkali, and drought stress, as well as its shorter growth cycle, it is usually grown for exploration of new wastelands and deserts, or as a remediation crop in the event of natural disasters Botanical description Panicum miliaceum L. L is a tufted perennial grass; 120 to 150 cm tall; culms stout, erect, glabrous, somewhat bulbous at a base, sheaths 7 to 14 cm long, glabrous or with sparse hairs at the collar, compressed, basal ones often purplish; ligule very short, but with a dense row of hairs just behind it; blades flat, 12 to 40 cm long, 3 to 12 mm wide, acute, scabrous, glaucous on an upper surface; inflorescence of 4 to 6 racemes, these 2 to 4 cm long, alternate, distant, their axis 4 to 9 cm long, villous at base, sometimes pilose in the axils. Figure 2.2 show herewith indicates various parts of Panicum miliaceum L. Page 4

9 Composition The table 2.5 shows composition of Panicum miliaceum L. grain per 100 g edible. Table 2.5 shows composition of Panicum miliaceum L. grain per 100 g edible. No Ingredients Quantity /100g 1 Water 8.3 g 2 Protein 11.7 g 3 Fat 6.3 g 4 Carbohydrate 70.2 g 5 Crude fibre 14.2 g 6 Calcium 113 mg 7 Magnesium 366 mg 8 Phosphorus 405 mg 9 Iron 8.2 mg 10 Zinc 4.2 mg 11 Thiamine 0.09 mg 12 Riboflavin 0.32 mg 13 Niacin 2.09 mg 14 Vitamin B mg 15 Folate 49 μg 16 Ascorbic acid 3.7 mg 17 Tryptophan 178 mg 18 Lysine 807 mg 19 Methionine 302 mg 20 Phenylalanine 592 mg 21 Threonine 658 mg 22 Valine 739 mg 23 Leucine 769 mg 24 Isoleucine 582 mg 25 Linoleic acid 1937 mg 26 Oleic acid 2433 mg 27 Palmitic acid 1084 mg Page

10 28 Stearic acid 308 mg 29 Energy 1255 ( kcal) Edible uses Edible parts: Leaves, Seed. Panicum miliaceum L. Is economically important. Its uses include: human food (cereal), animal f eed (fodder, forage) and medicine. It is harvested as a wild cereal in West Africa and in India Medicinal use The grains are astringent, cooling, constipating, diuretic, sedative, alexeteric and tonic. They are useful in ulcer, flatulence, straguary, diarrhoea, inflammation, and burning sensation. The stem is useful for corneal opacity [14, 15]. Table 2.6 summarized the classification of Panicum miliaceum L Panicum sumatrense (Little Millet): General Information of Panicum sumatrense Some basic information about Panicum sumatrense is summarised in table2.6 Table 2.6 Preliminary information about Panicum sumatrense Sr. No. Classification Scientific Name 1 Botanical name Panicum sumatrense 2 Kingdom: Plantae [unranked]: [unranked]: [unranked]: Angiosperms Monocots Commelinids 3 Order: Poales 4 Family: Poaceae 5 Subfamily: Panicoideae 6 Tribe: Paniceae 7 Genus: Panicum 8 Species: P. sumatrense Page 6

11 Origin and geographic distribution Panicum sumatrense is not known from the wild. It originated in the Andes, possibly as a hybrid between the wild Panicum sumatrense L. subsp. quitensis (Kunth) Costea & Carretero and the cultivated Panicum sumatrense. (Originating from Asia) [16]. Panicum sumatrense has long been grown as a food crop in the Andes. The earliest archaeological evidence of its cultivation dates from year-old tombs in north-western Argentina. The cultivated area has notably decreased over the years, but Panicum sumatrense has remained a grain crop in Asia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Argentina. It is occasionally grown as a grain crop in Europe and Africa. It is grown in Ethiopia and Eritrea for its grain and as an ornamental; it has also been grown in Uganda and Kenya and has been recorded from several other countries in Central, East and Southern Africa, and the Mascarene Islands, where it may also be found as a weed escaped from cultivation. Panicum sumatrense (Little millet) is one of the important minor cereals grown extensively in the tropics and a staple food for the low income groups in some countries of the world. Little millet is comparable with other cereals, such as rice and wheat as a source of protein, fat, carbohydrates and crude fibre, apart from minerals and vitamins. It also contains phytochemicals, such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, tannins and phytate [17]. Much attention has been given in investigation of the nutraceutical and antioxidant properties of major millets like sorghum, finger millet, pearl millet and foxtail millet [18] Botanical description Annual erect herb upto 1.5 ( 2.5) m tall, commonly reddish or purplish throughout; stem rather stout, not or sparingly branched, glabrous or thinly furnished with rather long hairs. Figure 2.4 show herewith indicates various parts of Panicum sumatrense Leaves arranged spirally, simple and entire; stipules absent; petiole upto 8 cm long, but never longer than the blade; blade broadly ovate Page 7

12 to rhomboid-ovate or ovate-elliptical, ( 20) cm 1 8 cm, base cuneate to attenuate, apex obtuse to acute, glabrous or sparsely hairy on main veins below, pinnately veined. Inflorescence large (upto 1.5 m) and complex, consisting of numerous agglomerated cymes arranged in axillary and terminal spikes, the terminal one pendant to erect; bracts 3 4 mm long, membranous, pale, with a long awn. Flowers unisexual, sessile; with 5 mucronate tepals 2 3 mm long; male flowers with 5 stamens c. 1 mm long; female flowers with superior, 1-celled ovary crowned by 3 stigmas. Fruit an ovoid-globose capsule mm long, circumscissile, almost smooth or slightly furrowed, abruptly narrowed to a short thick beak, 1-seeded. Figure 2.3 show herewith indicates various parts of Panicum sumatrense. Figure 2.3 Various part of Panicum sumatrense (Little Millet) Composition The table 2.7 shows composition of Panicum sumatrense grain per 100 g edible. Table 2.7 shows composition of Panicum sumatrense grain per 100 g edible. No Ingredients Quantity /100g 1 Water 9.8 g 2 Protein 14.5 g 3 Fat 6.5 g 4 Carbohydrate 66.2 g 5 Crude fibre 15.2 g 6 Calcium 153 mg Page

13 7 Magnesium 266 mg 8 Phosphorus 455 mg 9 Iron 7.6 mg 10 Zinc 3.2 mg 11 Thiamine 0.08 mg 12 Riboflavin 0.21 mg 13 Niacin 1.29 mg 14 Vitamin B mg 15 Folate 49 μg 16 Ascorbic acid 3.7 mg 17 Tryptophan 181 mg 18 Lysine 747 mg 19 Methionine 226 mg 20 Phenylalanine 542 mg 21 Threonine 558 mg 22 Valine 679 mg 23 Leucine 879 mg 24 Isoleucine 582 mg 25 Linoleic acid 2834 mg 26 Oleic acid 1433 mg 27 Palmitic acid 1284 mg 28 Stearic acid 220 mg 29 Energy 1565 kj (374 kcal) Edible uses Seeds of these millets are very small but easy to harvest and very nutritious. They are eaten cooked or ground into a powder and used for making cakes etc. They can also be sprouted and used in salads. The seed can be cooked whole, and becomes very gelatinous, but it is rather difficult to crush all of the small seeds in the mouth and thus, some of the seed will pass right through the digestive system without being assimilated. The flowers are used as a food colouring in ceremonial maize bread. Page

14 Medicinal Use In South America grain amaranths are traditionally used in medicine, folk festivals, and as dye sources. In Ethiopia the root is used as a laxative, and the seed for expelling tapeworms and for treating eye diseases, amoebic dysentery, and breast complaints. In India the plant is taken as a diuretic and it is applied to sores [19, 20]. Table 2.3 summarized the classification of Panicum sumatrense. Page 6

15 References [1] [2] M Williams, M. M. Pataky, J. K., Maize dwarf mosaic can reduce weed suppressive ability of sweet corn, Weed Science, 60(4), (2012), [3] [4] [5] C. Marx, S. Barcikowski, M. Hustedt,H. Haferkamp, & T. Rath, Design and application of a weed damage model for laser-based weed control, bio systems engineering, 113 (2012), [6] L. Luo, D. J. Ashworth, J. Simunek, R, Xuan, & S. R. Yates, Assessment of methods for methyl iodide emission reduction and pest control using a simulation model, Atmospheric Environment, 66 (2013), [7] L. You, P. Wang, & C. Kong, The levels of jasmonic acid and salicylic acid in a rice-barnyardgrass coexistence system and their relation to rice allelochemicals, Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 39 (2011), [8] T. Bicha, & H. K. Noguchia, Allelopathic potential of two aquatic plants, duckweed (Lemna minor L.) and water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.), on terrestrial plant species, Aquatic Botany. 103 (2012), [9] B. S. Chauhan, Shade reduces growth and seed production of Echinochloa colona, Echinochloa crus-galli, and Echinochloa glabrescens, Crop Protection. 43 (2013), [10] H. Mennan, M. Ngouajio, M. Sahin, D. Isık, & E. K. Altop, Competitiveness of rice (Oryza sativa L.) cultivars against Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) In water-seeded production systems, Crop Protection. 41 (2012), 1-9. [11] B. S. Chauhan, & D. E. Johnson, Ecological studies on Echinochloa crus-galli and the implications for weed management in directseeded rice, Crop Protection. 30 (2011), [12] Page 6

16 [13] um. [14] D. J. Rosea, & D. K. Santrab, Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) fermentation for fuel ethanol production, Industrial Crops and Products. 43 (2013), [15] V. A. Martı nez, M. M. Mikha, & M. F. Vigil, Microbial communities and enzyme activities in soils under alternative crop rotations compared to wheat fallow for the Central Great Plains, Applied soil ecology, 37 (2007), [16] X. Hu, J. Wang, P. Lu, & H. Zhang, Assessment of genetic diversity in broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) using SSR markers, Journal Of Genetics and Genomics. 36 (2009), [17] [18] S. D. Corral, S. L. Cuffini, S. G. Cardoso, A. J. Bortoluzzid, & S. M. Palacios, Phytotoxic halimanes isolated from Baccharis salicifolia (Ruiz & Pad.) Pers., Phytochemistry Letters. 5 (2012), [19] S. U. Alfonso, & W. Brüggemann, Photosynthetic responses of a C 3 and three C 4 species of the genus Panicum (s.l.) with different metabolic subtypes to drought stress, Photosynthesis Research, 112 (3), (2012), [20] S. Sivakumar, O. L. Franco, B. Thayumanavan, A. Murad, M. Manickam, A. Mohan, & M. Mridula, Cloning and structural analysis of an Indian little millet (Panicum sumatrense) zein-like storage protein: Implications for molecular assembly, Biochemistry, 71 (11), (2006), Page 62