PLANT GUM EXUDATES OF THE WORLD
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1 PLANT GUM EXUDATES OF THE WORLD Sources, Distribution, Properties, and Applications Amos Nussinovitch (Ltfi) CRC Press \ V J Taylor & Francis Croup Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Croup, an informa business
2 Contents Preface Acknowledgments The Author xix xxiii xxv 1 Role and Sources of Exudate Gums Introduction Definitions Gum Yields Agricultural Issues Physical Properties of Gums Color Size and shape Taste and smell Hardness and density Polarization Solubility Viscosity and mouthfeel Chemical Properties Commercial Assessments of Gums Industrial and Other Uses 19 References 20 2 Physiological Aspects of Polysaccharide Formation in Plants Introduction Stress Factors, Ethylene and Gummosis Borers and Gum Formation Gum Ducts Gummosis in Fruit Trees Induced Inoculation and Gum Yield 34 References 35 3 Major Plant Exudates of the World Introduction Gum Arabic and Other Acacia Gums 39 VII
3 viii Contents Acacia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Taxon: Acacia Senegal (L.) Willd Taxon: Acacia seyalde\i\e Taxon: Acacia abyssinica Hochst. ex Benth. subsp. calophylla Brenan Taxon: Acacia bakeri Maiden Taxon: Acacia benthamii Meisn Taxon: Acacia binervata DC Taxon: Acacia catechu (L. f.) Willd Taxon: Acacia dealbata Link Taxon: Acacia decurrens Willd Taxon: Acacia drepanolobium Harms ex Y. Sjostedt Taxon: Acacia elata A. Cunn. ex Benth Taxon: Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd Taxon: Acacia ferruginea DC Taxon: Acacia harpophyllaf. Muell. ex Benth Taxon: Acacia jacquemontii Benth Taxon: Acacia karroo Hayne Taxon: Acacia kirkii Oliv Taxon: Acacia laeta R. Br. ex Benth Taxon: Acacia leiophylla Benth Taxon: Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd Taxon: Acacia maidenii F. Muell Taxon: Acacia mellifera (Vahl) Benth Taxon: Acacia modesta Wall A.24 Taxon: Acacia oerfota (Forssk.) Schweinf Taxon: Acacia oswaldii F. Muell Taxon: Acaciapendula A. Cunn. ex G. Don Taxon: Acaciapenninervis Sieber ex DC Taxon: Acaciapycnantha Benth Taxon: Acacia retinodes Schltdl Taxon: Acacia salicina Lindl Taxon: Acacia sieberiana DC Taxon: Acacia stuhlmanii Taub Taxon: Acacia vernicifiua A. Cunn Taxon: Acacia xanthophloea Benth Faidherbia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Taxon: Faidherbia albida (Delile) A. Chev Gum Tragacanth and Similar Gums Astragalus FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) Taxon: Astragalus gummifer Labill Taxon: Astragalus brachycalyx Fisch Taxon: Astragalus heratensis Bunge Taxon: Astragalus kurdicus Boiss Taxon: Astragalus microcephalus Willd Taxon: Astragalus verus Olivier 57
4 Contents ix Sterculia MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: STERCULIOIDEAE) Taxon: Sterculia urens Roxb Taxon: Sterculia foetida L Taxon: Sterculia guttata Roxb Taxon: Sterculia quadrifida R. Br Taxon: Sterculia scaphigera Wall Taxon: Sterculia setigera Delile Taxon: Sterculia tragacantha Lindl Taxon: Sterculia villosa Roxb Brachychiton MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: STERCULIOIDEAE) A Taxon: Brachychiton acerifolius (A. Cunn. ex G. Don) Macarthur Firmiana MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: STERCULIOIDEAE) Taxon: Firmiana simplex (L.) W. Wight Hildegardia MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: STERCULIOIDEAE) Taxon: Hildegardia barteri (Mast.) Kosterm Cochlospermum BIXACEAE Taxon: Cochlospermum religiosum (L.) Alston Important Indian or Asiatic Gums and Their Botanical Sources Aegle RUTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: AURANTIOIDEAE) Taxon: Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa Albizia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Taxon: Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth Taxon: Albizia odoratissima (L. f.) Benth Taxon: Albiziaprocera (Roxb.) Benth Taxon: Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr Taxon: Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin Aleurites EUPHORBIACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CROTONOIDEAE) Taxon: Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd Anogeissus COMBRETACEAE Taxon: Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb. ex DC.) Wall, ex Guill. & Perr Bauhinia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) Taxon: Bauhiniapurpurea L Taxon: Bauhinia roxburghiana Voigt Taxon: Bauhinia variegata L Buchanania ANACARDIACEAE Taxon: Buchanania lanzan Spreng Taxon: Buchanania latifolia Roxb Toona MELIACEAE A Taxon: Toona ciliata M. Roem Chloroxylon RUTACEAE Taxon: Chloroxylon swietenia DC Delonix FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) Taxon: Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf Elaeodendron CELASTRACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CELASTROIDEAE) Taxon: Elaeodendron glaucum (Rottb.) Pers 86
5 Contents Limonia RUTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: AURANTIOIDEAE) Taxon: Limonia acidissima L Mangifera ANACARDIACEAE Taxon: Mangifera indica L Azadirachta MELIACEAE Taxon: Azadirachta indica A. Juss Prosopis FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Taxon: Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce Taxon: Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC Sesbania FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) Taxon: Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Pers Spondias ANACARDIACEAE Taxon: Spondias dulcis Sol. ex Parkinson Taxon: Spondiaspinnata (J. Koenig ex L. f.) Kurz Terminalia COMBRETACEAE A Taxon: Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb Gums of The New World Anacardium ANACARDIACEAE Taxon: Anacardium humile A. St.-Hil Taxon: Anacardium nanumk. St.-Hil Taxon: Anacardium occidentakh Anadenanthera FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Taxon: Anadenanthera colubrina (Veil.) Brenan var. cebil (Griseb.) Altschul Taxon: Anadenanthera colubrina (Veil.) Brenan var. colubrina Caesalpinia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) Taxon: Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd Parkinsonia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) Taxon: Parkinsoniapraecox (Ruiz & Pav.) J. A. Hawkins subsp. praecox Parapiptadenia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Taxon: Parapiptadenia rigida (Benth.) Brenan Puya BROMELIACEAE Taxon: Puya chilensis Molina Jheobroma MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: BYTTNERIOIDEAE) Taxon: Theobroma cacao L Laguncularia COMBRETACEAE Taxon: Laguncularia racemosa (L.) C. F. Gaertn Pithecellobium FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Ill Taxon: Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth Ill Samanea FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Ill Taxon: Samaneasaman (Jacq.) Merr Ill Enterolobium FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Taxon: Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb Chloroleucon FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Taxon: Chloroleucon mangense (Jacq.) Britton & Rose 115
6 Contents xi Leucaena FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Taxon: Leucaena collinsii Britton & Rose Lysiloma FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Taxon: Lysiloma acapulcense (Kunth) Benth Lnga FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Taxon: lnga stipularis DC Rhizophora RHIZOPHORACEAE Taxon: Rhizophora mangle!, Melicoccus SAPINDACEAE (SUBFAMILY: SAPINDOIDEAE) Taxon: Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq Ceiba MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: BOMBACOIDEAE) Taxon: Ceiba speciosa (A. St.-Hil.) Ravenna Thespesia MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MALVOIDEAE) Taxon: Thespesiapopulnea (L.) Sol. ex Correa Cylindropuntia CACTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: OPUNTIOIDEAE) Taxon: Cylindropuntia fulgida (Engelm.) F. M. Knuth Manilkara SAPOTACEAE Taxon: Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen Larix PINACEAE Taxon: Larix occidentals Nutt Miscellaneous Asiatic, African, and Australian Gums Actinidia ACTINIDIACEAE Taxon: Actinidia deliciosa (A. Chev.) C. F. Liang &A. R. Ferguson Araucaria ARAUCARIACEAE Taxon: Araucaria heterophylla (Salisb.) Franco Balanites ZYGOPHYLLACEAE (SUBFAMILY: TRIBULOIDEAE) Taxon: Balanites aegyptiacus (L.) Delile Brabejum PROTEACEAE Taxon: Brabejum stellatifolium L Butea FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) Taxon: Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub Cercis FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) Taxon: Cercis siliquastrum L Cissus VITACEAE Taxon: Cissus populnea Guill. & Perr Commiphora BURSERACEAE Taxon: Commiphora mollis (Oliv) Engl Diospyros EBENACEAE Taxon: Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A. DC Dicorynia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) Taxon: Dicoryniaparaensis Benth Entandrophragma MELIACEAE Taxon: Entandrophragma angolense (Welw.) C. DC Fagarta RUTACEAE Taxon: Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepern. &Timler 131
7 xii Contents Ferula APIACEAE Taxon: Ferula foetida (Bunge) Regel Grevillea PROTEACEAE Taxon: Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. ex R. Br Lophira OCHNACEAE Taxon: Lophira alata Banks ex C. F. Gaertn Madhuca SAPOTACEAE Taxon: Madhuca longifolia (L.) J. F. Macbr Millettia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) Taxon: Millettiapinnata (L.) Panigrahi Mystroxylon CELASTRACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CELASTROIDEAE) Taxon: Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes Parkia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Taxon: Parkia bicolor A. Chev Pereskia CACTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: PERESKIOIDEAE) Taxon: Pereskia guamacho F.A.C. Weber Phormium HEMEROCALLIDACEAE Taxon: Phormium tenax]. R. Forst. & G. Forst Piptadeniastrum FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Taxon: Piptadeniastrum africanum (Hook, f.) Brenan Pittosporum PITTOSPORACEAE Taxon: Pittosporumphillyreoides DC Polyscias ARALIACEAE (SUBFAMILY: ARALIOIDEAE) Taxon: Polyscias sambucifolia (Sieber ex DC.) Harms Taxon: Prunus avium (L.) L Prunus ROSACEAE (SUBFAMILY: SPIRAEOIDEAE) Taxon: Prunus armeniaca L Taxon: Prunus domestica L. subsp. domestica Taxon: Prunuspersica (L.) Batsch var. persica Taxon: Prunus spinosa L Pterocarpus FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) Taxon: Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb Sapindus SAPINDACEAE (SUBFAMILY: SAPINDOIDEAE) Taxon: Sapindus trifoliatus L Stangeria ZAMIACEAE Taxon: Stangeria eriopus (Kunze) Baill Symphonia CLUSIACEAE Taxon: Symphonia globuliferah. f Talisia SAPINDACEAE (SUBFAMILY: SAPINDOIDEAE) Taxon: Talisia oliviformis (Kunth) Radlk Taxon: Watsonia versfeldii). W. Mathews & L. Bolus Welwitschia WELWITSCHIACEAE Taxon: Welwitschia mirabilis Hook. f Ziziphus RHAMNACEAE Taxon: Ziziphus jujuba Mill 148 References 149
8 Contents xiii Minor Plant Exudates of the World Introduction Adansonia MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: BOMBACOIDEAE) Taxon: Adansonia digitata L Adenanthera FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) Taxon: Adenantherapavonina L Afzelia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) Taxon: Afzelia africana Sm. ex Pers Albizia FABACEAE Anogeissus COMBRETACEAE Taxon: Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC.) Guill. & Perr Atalaya SAPINDACEAE (SUBFAMILY: SAPINDOIDEAE) Taxon: Atalaya hemiglauca (F. Muell.) F. Muell. ex Benth Balsamocitrus RUTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: AURANTIOIDEAE) Taxon: Balsamocitrus dawei Stapf Bauhinia FABACEAE Taxon: Bauhinia carronii F. Muell Taxon: Bauhinia thonningii Schumach. & Thonn Taxon: Tylosema fassoglense (Kotschy ex Schweinf.) Torre & Hillc Julbernardia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) Taxon: Julbernardia globiflora (Benth.) Troupin Bombax MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: BOMBACOIDEAE) Taxon: Bombax ceiba L Taxon: Bombax insigne^/zw Borassus ARECACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CORYPHOIDEAE) Taxon: BorassusflabelliferL Bosistoa RUTACEAE (SUBFAMILY: TODDALIOIDEAE) Taxon: Bosistoapentacocca (F. Muell.) Bail Brachystegia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) Taxon: Brachystegia spiciformis Benth Burkea FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) Taxon: Burkea africana Hook Capparis CAPPARACEAE Taxon: Capparis nobilis (Endl.) F. Muell. ex Benth Careya LECYTHIDACEAE (SUBFAMILY: PLANCHONIOIDEAE) A Taxon: Careya arborea Roxb Cassia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) Taxon: Cassia fistula L Taxon: Cassia sieberiana DC Cedrela MELIACEAE Taxon: Cedrela odoratal Ceiba MALVACEAE (SUBFAMILY: BOMBACOIDEAE) Taxon: Ceibapentandra (L.) Gaertn Ceratopetalum CUNONIACEAE Taxon: Ceratopetalum apetalum D. Don Taxon: Ceratopetalum gummiferum Sm 191
9 xiv Contents 4.22 Chukrasia MELIACEAE Taxon: Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss Citrus RUTACEAE Cocos ARECACEAE (SUBFAMILY: ARECOIDEAE) Taxon: Cocos nucifera L Cola STERCULIACEAE Taxon: Cola cordifolia (Cav.) R. Br Combretum COMBRETACEAE Cordia BORAGINACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CORDIOIDEAE) Taxon: Cordia myxa L Cordyla FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) Taxon: Cordyla africana Lour Corypha ARECACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CORYPHOIDEAE) Taxon: Corypha utan Lam Crataeva CAPPARACEAE Taxon: Crataeva adansonii DC Cussonia ARALIACEAE A Taxon: Cussonia arborea Hochst. ex A. Rich Cycas CYCADACEAE Taxon: Cycas lane-poolei C. A. Gardner Taxon: Cycas circinalis L Dichrostachys FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) A Taxon: Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn Echinocarpus ELAEOCARPACEAE A Taxon: Echinocarpus australis Benth. (now synonym of sloanea australis F. Muell., see section ) Elaeocarpus ELAEOCARPACEAE Taxon: Elaeocarpusgrandis F. Muell Taxon: Elaeocarpus obovatus G. Don Taxon: Elaeocarpus reticulatus Sm Encephalartos ZAMIACEAE Taxon: Encephalartos hildebrandtii A. Braun & C. D. Bouche Entada FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: MIMOSOIDEAE) A Taxon: Entada africana Guill. & Perr Erythrophleum FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) Taxon: Erythrophleum africanum (Welw. ex Benth.) Harms Flindersia RUTACEAE Taxon: Flindersia maculosa (Lindl.) F. Muell Taxon: Flindersia australis R. Br Garuga BURSERACEAE Taxon: Garugapinnata Roxb Geijera RUTACEAE Taxon: Geijera paniculata (F. Muell.) Druce Geodorum ORCHIDACEAE Taxon: Geodorum nutans (C. Presl) Ames Hakea PROTEACEAE Taxon: Hakea gibbosa (Sm.) Cav. 213
10 Contents xv 4.44 Khaya MELIACEAE Taxon: Khaya grandifoliola C. DC Taxon: Khaya madagascariensis Jum. & H. Perrier Taxon: Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss Lagerstroemia LYTHRACEAE Taxon: Lagerstroemiaparviflora Roxb Lannea ANACARDIACEAE Taxon: Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr Macrozamia ZAMIACEAE A Taxon: Macrozamia spiralis (Salisb.) Miq Melia MELIACEAE Taxon: Melia azedarach L Melicope RUTACEAE Taxon: Bouchardatia neurococca (F. Muell.) Moringa MORINGACEAE Taxon: Moringa oleifera Lam Owenia MELIACEAE Taxon: Owenia venosa F. Muell Panax (Tieghemopanax) ARALIACEAE Taxon: Polyscias elegans (C. Moore & F. Muell.) Harms Taxon: Neopanax colensoi (Hook, f.) Allan Saltern PENAEACEAE Taxon: Saltera sarcocolla (L.) Bullock Pentaceras RUTACEAE Taxon: Pentaceras australis (F. Muell.) Benth Prunus ROSACEAE Taxon: Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb Pseudocedrela MELIACEAE Taxon: Pseudocedrela kotschyi (Schweinf.) Harms Saccopetalum ANNONACEAE Taxon: Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) J. Sinclaiv Sarcostemma ASCLEPIADACEAE Taxon: Sarcostemma brevistigma Wight & Arn Schefflera ARALIACEAE Taxon: Schefflera volkensii Harms Sclerocarya ANACARDIACEAE Taxon: Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst Semecarpus ANACARDIACEAE Taxon: Semecarpus anacardium L. f Sloanea ELAEOCARPACEAE Taxon: Sloanea woollsii F. Muell Taxon: Sloanea australis F. Muell Soymida MELIACEAE Taxon: Soymida febrifuga (Roxb.) A. Juss Tamarindus FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: CAESALPINIOIDEAE) Taxon: Tamarindus indica L 236
11 xvi Contents 4.65 Heritiera MALVACEAE Taxon: Heritiera trifoliolata (F. Muell.) Kosterm Terminalia COMBRETACEAE Thevetia APOCYNACEAE Taxon: Thevetiaperuviana (Pers.) K. Schum Virgilia FABACEAE (SUBFAMILY: FABOIDEAE) Taxon: Virgilia oroboides (P. J. Bergius) T. M. Salter 246 References 247 Food Applications of Plant Exudates Introduction Food Uses of Gum Exudates Confectionery Salad dressings and sauces Frozen products Frozen dough Frozen sugar solutions Frozen dairy products, ice pops and sherbets Spray-drying Spray-drying of juices Miscellaneous spray-dried products Encapsulation via spray-drying Drum-drying Wine Adhesives Bakery products Flavorfixativesand emulsifiers Beverages Meat products Miscellaneous Microencapsulation Oleoresins Linoleic acid microencapsulation Procyanidins Coacervation Deep-fat frying Emulsions Foam Gum Exudates in Animal Food Introduction Insects Mammals and primates Health-Related Aspects Safety Nutrition 285 References 286
12 Contents xvii 6 Gum Exudates in Water-Based Adhesives Introduction Gums as Adhesives Industrial Uses of Exudate Glues General Paper Wood and furniture Biological Applications: A General Approach Ostomy devices Denture fixatives Bioelectrodes Exudate patches for transdermal drug delivery Hydrocolloid Adhesion Tests Exudates as Wet Glues Adhesion Mechanisms of Hydrogels 306 References Medical, Cosmetic and Biotechnological Uses of Gum Exudates Introduction Pharmacological Applications Demulcent and emollient qualities Suspending and emulsifying agents Laxatives Antiseptic preparations and ophthalmic infections Tablets and pills Hydrophobic drug delivery Lycopene Gelatin- And chitosan-gum arabic coacervates Various medical uses Intravenous injections Activity against leishmania and fungi Folk Medicine Cosmetics and Other Products General Different cosmetic preparations Perfume Powdered abrasive cleaners Biotechnological Applications Recombinant plant gum Intracellular delivery 323 References Analysis and Identification of Gum Exudates Introduction Industrial Gums Water solubility Alcohol precipitability 329
13 xviii Contents Microscopic identification Identification of gums in specific foods Antibodies for the identification of gum arabic and other polysaccharides Group Analysis and Identification Schemes Characteristic reactions of gums Cetavlon group identification scheme Additional Analytical Methods IR spectroscopy Chromatographic techniques to identify plant gums Fourier transform-raman spectroscopy of gum exudates Capillary electrophoresis Other methods 342 References Miscellaneous Uses of Plant Exudates Introduction Paints, Pigments and Painting Inks Lithography Textiles Corrosion Inhibition Immersion Plating Drilling Fluids Oil-Weil Cement Binders and Special Coatings Glaze binders Binders for insecticides Non-glare coatings for windshields Paper and E-Paper Explosives Ceramics Miscellaneous Varnishes Car polishes Cross-linked polystyrene Photoelectric determinations Polarographic determinations Abdominal ultrasound imaging and soil analyses Vinyl resin emulsions 368 References 368 Organism Name Index 371 General Index 383
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