Rise of Civilizations Ch. 1

Transcription

1 Rise of Civilizations Ch. 1 Early Development Earliest hominids: The earliest hominids humanlike creatures that walked upright belonged to the genus Australopithecus and lived in Africa 4 million years ago. Leakeys' discovery at Olduvai Gorge: In 1959, Louis and Mary Leakey discovered what was the oldest hominid known at that time a skeleton that was about 1.8 million years old. Homo habilis and Homo erectus: More advanced hominids developed, including Homo habilis, which had a brain larger than the brain of earlier hominids and may have used stone tools. Homo erectus had arms and legs in modern human proportion and was probably the first hominid to leave Africa. Homo sapiens: Homo sapiens emerged about 250,000 years ago and developed into anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) between 200,000 and 150,000 years ago. These humans slowly spread throughout the world, replacing earlier hominids, such as the Neanderthals of Europe and Turkey. Paleolithic-Neolithic The Paleolithic Age Importance of stone tools: The use of stone tools made it possible for early humans to sustain themselves. The use of wooden handles made tools easier to use. In time, Paleolithic people developed better tools and weapons, such as bows and arrows, harpoons, and fishhooks. Nomadic way of life: Paleolithic people were nomads, living in small groups that moved from place to place to hunt and gather food. Both men and women worked to find food, and they passed their skills on to their children. Use of fire: The ability to make and use fire was a key discovery, as fire provided warmth, helped to keep dangerous animals away, and allowed people to cook food. Ice Age migrations: During the last Ice Age, sea levels went down and people migrated across land bridges that had previously been covered with water. Paleolithic art: Early artists used fingers and twigs to paint cave walls with pictures, mostly of animals. Cave paintings provide important evidence of Paleolithic peoples. Neolithic - Emergence of Systematic Agriculture Shift to farming: For thousands of years, early humans were hunters and gatherers. At the end of the last Ice Age, however, a dramatic change took place as people began to domesticate animals and grow food on a regular basis. Consistent food supply: Systematic agriculture provided a steady food supply, and so early people could give up their nomadic ways of life and live in settled communities. This change occurred very gradually, beginning in the Mesolithic Age. It finally took hold in the Neolithic Age and has been called the Neolithic Revolution. Worldwide spread of agriculture: Between 8000 and 5000 b.c., systematic agriculture developed in many different parts of the world, beginning in Southwest Asia.

2 Rise of farming villages: The emergence of systematic agriculture led to the growth of Neolithic farming villages such as Jericho and Çatalhüyük. - Have students write chapter one terms (limited time based off of class work) Effects of the Neolithic Revolution Specialization of labor: Systematic agriculture gave early people a steady food supply. This made it possible for some people to do work other than farming. Many people became artisans, making goods to trade with their neighbors and with those in other communities. Eventually, the work force became more specialized. Changes in society: In time, the beginnings of a traditional economy emerged. Villages and towns grew, trade increased, the division of labor continued, and new roles for men and women developed. Use of metals: The discovery of metals, which could be used to make stronger tools and weapons, brought early people a new level of control over the environment. This led to periods known as the Bronze Age and the Iron Age. End of Neolithic Age: As cities began to develop, the Neolithic Age slowly came to an end. Characteristics of Civilizations From cultures to civilizations: As the Neolithic Age ended, complex cultures were developing into a new form of human society civilizations. Historians have identified Six basic characteristics of civilizations: Cities: A consistent food supply made it possible to support larger populations, and cities grew. Government: The need to maintain the food supply and the need for defense led to the development of governments. In the first civilizations, governments were usually led by monarchs. Religion: People in early civilizations developed religions to help them explain the forces of nature and their roles in the world. These religions included rituals that the people performed in the hope of appeasing their gods and of being granted good fortune, such as a bountiful harvest. Social structure: Early civilizations developed a social structure based on economic power, which included an upper class, a large group of free people, and a slave class. Through trade, technologies were transferred among civilizations. Writing: Rulers, priests, merchants, and artisans used writing for record keeping, but people in early civilizations also used writing for creative expression. Art: People in early civilizations expressed themselves through art, with architects, painters, and sculptors playing important roles. - Review Mesopotamia and the importance of living near water Fertile Crescent The Fertile Crescent Mesopotamia, the land between the rivers Annual flooding, fertile soil, and abundant crops Creation of first Mesopotamian civilization - Rise of Egypt Life in Ancient Egypt

3 Geographic advantages of Egypt Technological Innovations - Cuneiform and clay tablets - Importance of scribes - Functions of writing - Other Sumerian innovations Rise of Egypt Ch. 2 Geography and Religion The Nile: (p.22) important in Egyptian civilization; they wrote Hymn of the Nile praising it as the creator of all good. - splits into two major branches, empties in the Mediterranean; -fastest way to travel - north wind pushed sailboats south, current carried them north. - Because of its length, more than 4,000 miles long, longest in the world - the Nile River provided a natural route for transportation and communication. - Nile delta is Lower Egypt - land upstream is called Upper Egypt - yearly flooding is called miracle of the Nile - gave surplus of food, which help made Egypt prosperous - Farmers counted on yearly flooding of the Nile to replenish the soil that provided a surplus of food. Natural protection: Deserts to the west and east, the Red Sea to the east, the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and rapids on the Nile provided natural barriers against invasion. Religion: (p. 23) provided a sense of security and timelessness - they had no word for religion, they were polytheistic - numerous gods associated with heavenly bodies and natural forces gave early Egyptians a sense of security and timelessness. Discussion Ask: 1) What are some geographic advantages of Egypt's location? (Answers will vary, but students should mention the Nile, natural barriers to invasion, and access to the Mediterranean Sea.) 2) Why might the Egyptian people have thought of the Nile River in religious terms? (The river was seen as the "creator of all good" because of its role in farming, transportation, and communication.) Egyptian Kingdoms

4 History of Egypt begins in 3100B.C. - King Menes united Upper and Lower Egypt into a single kingdom and created the first royal dynasty - family of rulers, passed down Three kingdoms: Historians divide the history of Egypt into three periods of lasting stability the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom. Old Kingdom (p.23) Old Kingdom: The Old Kingdom was an age of prosperity and unity that lasted from around 2700 to 2200 b.c. Egyptian kingship: In Egypt, kingship was a divine institution, and the pharaohs possessed absolute power, which they exercised with the help of a bureaucracy. - various titles, however, pharaoh was the most popular meaning great house or palace - kingship was divine and part of the cosmic order, by obeying the pharaoh you were helping maintain a stable order Pharaoh had unlimited power, seen as a god government divided into 42 provinces run by governors appointed by pharaoh Pyramids were built to bury the dead mostly pharaoh and their families, often called the city of the dead Mummification took about 70 days Largest pyramids were built during the Old Kingdom still stands as a visible symbol of Egyptian power Collapsed and left a period of disorder that lasted about 150 years until a new dynasty gained control of all Egypt Middle Kingdom (p. 24) After 150 years of disorder, Egypt expanded during the Middle Kingdom, a golden age of stability that lasted from about 2055 to 1650 b.c. Period of expansion conquered Nubia Pharaohs sent traders to Kush, Syria, Mesopotamia and Crete Had a new concern for the people portrayed as a shepherd build public works and provided for public warfare Invaded by a group of people from western Asia, Hyksos used horse drawn war chariots to overwhelm the Egyptian soldiers who used donkey carts New Kingdom (p.51) As time went by a new dynasty of pharaohs used the new weapons to drive out the Hyksos Pharaoh Ahmose drove out the Hyksos set up new kingdom B.C.

5 Sets up a more professional army becomes the most powerful state in the ancient Near East Thutmosis I expanded border south, conquered African kingdom of Nubia Thutmosis III led campaigns into Canaan and Syria Reached its height during the reign of Amenhotep III magnificent new buildings and temples; at the end of his reign he faced challenges from the Hittites Amenhotep IV was less able to deal with the threat partly due to a religious upheaval he began in Egypt - he introduced the worship of Aten, god of the sun. Amenhotep changed his name to Akhenaten (servant of Aten). He closed the temples of other gods, set up a new capital called Akhetaten. His attempts failed society had been to use to having many gods the people saw it as the destruction of Egypt itself Pharaoh Tutankhamen restored the old gods after Amenhotep s death It was during the New Kingdom Egyptian queen became pharaoh Hatshepsut her reign was prosperous She built a great temple dedicated to herself Sent out expeditions, encouraging mining and sent military expeditions up river Life in Ancient Egypt (p.25) Society maintained a simple structure = organized like a pyramid god-king at top, surrounded by nobles and priest who ran the gov t; upper class merchants, artisans, scribes, and tax collectors; largest population farmers peasants Peasants also paid taxes in forms of crops, forced to provide military service and labor for building projects Parents arranged marriages girls age 12 and boys at 14 main purpose was to produce children, especially sons to carry on the family name Husband was master of the home; wives were well respected, property and inheritance stayed in their hands, even in marriage Most public offices were closed to women Egyptian Accomplishments (p.26) - Hieroglyphics earliest form of writing, first carved in stone, later written on papyrus - later simplified version called hieratic script, used for business transactions - pyramids, temples and other monuments show their architectural and artistic achievements - advances in mathematics - able to calculate area and volume and use geometry to survey flooded land - developed an accurate 365-day calendar by basing their year on the movements of the moon and the bright star Sirius

6 Pastoral Nomads - (p.27) - lived on the borders of civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt - depended on hunting, gathering and herding, sometimes farming to survive - on occasion overran settled communities and created empires - domesticated animals for food and clothing - carried products between civilized centers often passing on new technology - Indo-Europeans were one of the most significant nomadic peoples - Indo-European refers to a particular group of people who spoke a language derived from a single parent tongue - Greek, Latin, Persian, Sanskrit, Germanic ( English and German) Phoenicians - (p. 28) - lived on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea - had a new found political independence after the fall of the Hittites and the Egyptians which gave them a newfound political independence that helped them expand their trade - produced a number of goods for foreign market - purple dye, glass, lumber from the cedars from the forest of Lebanon - built ships and became great international sea traders creating a trade empire - charted new routes in the Mediterranean and Atlantic - set up colonies - most famous was Carthage - best known for their alphabet - 22 characters, or letters, represented sounds of their speech - used to spell out words - eventually passed on the Greeks who passed on to the Romans, we still use today Israelites (p.29) - south of the Phoenicians - minor factor in politics of the region - religion known of as today as Judaism - influenced Christianity and Islam - history and beliefs written in the Hebrew Bible - descendants of Abraham migrated from Mesopotamia, Ur, to Canaan - focused on grazing animals rather than farming - due to a drought they moved to Egypt, were enslaved, Moses led them out (probably late 13 th century B.C. - Hebrew Bible teaches they lived in the desert for 40 years before they returned to Canaan B.C. organized into tribes, established a united kingdom known of as Israel - under King David - about B.C. established control over all the land which came to be called Israel - Jerusalem its capital - Solomon expanded the government and army, encouraged trade - best known for building the i - after Solomon s death - tension led to creation of two separate kingdoms - Kingdom of Israel and Kingdom of Judah - Assyrians overran Kingdom of Israel, most were scattered and lost their identity (ten lost tribes)

7 - Kingdom of Judah was conquered by the Chaldeans who defeated the Assyrians, completely destroying Jerusalem - many were captured and sent to Babylon (period known of as the Babylonian exile) Judaism (p.30) - Israelite traditions: The Semitic-speaking people known as Israelites were a minor factor in politics, but their religion of Judaism flourished and would later influence Christianity and Islam. According to their own traditions, they had originally migrated from Mesopotamia to Canaan, then moved to Egypt, and then been led by Moses back to Canaan. The united kingdom: Between 1200 and 970 b.c., the Israelites took control of the land of Canaan, forming a kingdom with Jerusalem as its capital. Under King Solomon, ancient Israel reached the height of its power. The divided kingdom: After Solomon's death, Israel's people divided into two separate kingdoms: the Kingdom of Israel, consisting of ten northern tribes, with its capital at Samaria, and the Kingdom of Judah, consisting of two tribes, with its capital at Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Israel was conquered by Assyria, and its people were scattered. After a period of exile in Babylonia, the people of Judah were allowed by the Persians to return to their homeland. Judaism: Jews believe that one God is creator of the world, that all peoples are God's servants, and that God is just and good and punishes those who are not. They believe that they have a covenant with God, who led them out of bondage in Egypt. Their belief in one God rather than many and in all people's (not just priests' or rulers') access to God's will contributed to their to social separation from other peoples. Discussion Ask: What are the fundamental laws that govern the Jewish people, and what relationship with God do the laws represent? (The Ten Commandments that Moses received from God are the fundamental laws for Jews, and they represent a covenant between the one God and the Jewish people.) The Minoans (p.31) A Cretan civilization: The Minoan civilization flourished on the island of Crete in the eastern Mediterranean from 2700 to 1450 b.c. The Minoans traded pottery and gold and silver jewelry with both the Egyptians and areas in southern Greece. Knossos: The ruins of an enormous royal palace complex at Knossos reveal a rich culture controlling a sea empire based on trade. Rooms in the palace included private living quarters and workshops for making decorated vases, ivory sculptures, and jewelry. Sudden collapse: The Minoan civilization on Crete collapsed around 1450 b.c. Some scholars attribute the collapse to a catastrophic event, but most think the cause was an invasion by Mycenaeans from mainland Greece.

8 GEOGRAPHY OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT (p.32) India is a land of diversity. Today, about 110 languages and more than 1,000 dialects varieties of language are spoken in India. Diversity is also apparent in India s geography. The Indian subcontinent, shaped like a triangle hanging from the southern ridge of Asia, is composed of a number of core regions, including mountain ranges, river valleys, a dry interior plateau, and fertile coastal plains. In the far north are the Himalaya, the highest mountains in the world. Ganges (GAN jeez) River, directly south of the Himalaya, one of the chief regions of Indian culture. Indus River valley, a relatively dry plateau that forms the backbone of the modern state of Pakistan. In ancient times, the Indus Valley enjoyed a more moderate climate and served as the cradle of Indian civilization. South of India s two major river valleys the valleys of the Ganges and the Indus lies the Deccan Plateau, which extends from the Ganges Valley to the southern tip of India. The interior of the plateau is relatively hilly and dry. India s eastern and western coasts are lush plains. These plains have historically been among the most densely populated regions of India. Monsoon, primary feature of India s climate, a seasonal wind pattern in southern Asia. During the months of June through September, monsoon winds from the south and southwest blow across the Arabian Sea, part of the Indian Ocean. These summer monsoons carrying moistureladen air cause heavy rainfall across the subcontinent, especially on the west coast near Mumbai. Discussion Ask: Why are the people of India dependent on the pattern of yearly monsoons? (They rely on monsoons to bring moisture for crops. If the monsoons don't come, the crops fail, and many people starve.) The Indus Valley Civilization (p.33) During the cooler season, from October through February, the wind pattern reverses direction and blows from the north and northeast. Although this air is cooler and drier than the summer monsoons, the winter monsoons bring significant rainfall to the east coast of India. The wettest place on earth is in the mountains of northeast India. Winds blow over the plains below, rise up the mountainside, cool, and release rain. Throughout history, Indian farmers have depended on the heavy rains brought by the southwest monsoons. If the rains come early or late, or too much or too little rain falls, crops are destroyed and thousands starve.

9 How advanced were the civilizations of the Indus Valley? (p.33-34) As in Mesopotamia and Egypt, early civilization in India emerged in river valleys. Between 3000 b.c. and 1500 b.c., the valleys of the Indus River supported a civilization that extended hundreds of miles from the Himalaya to the Arabian Sea. Archaeologists have found the remains of more than a thousand settlements in this region. Two of the ruins were the sites of the cities of Harappa (huh RA puh) and Mohenjo Daro (moh hehn joh DAHR oh). An advanced civilization flourished in these cities for hundreds of years. Historians call it the Harappan or Indus civilization. At its height, Harappa had 35,000 inhabitants; Mohenjo Daro had about 35,000 to 40,000. Both cities were carefully planned. The broad main streets ran in a north-south direction and were crossed by smaller east-west roads. Houses varied in size, some as high as three stories, but all followed the same plan a square courtyard surrounded by rooms. Public wells provided a regular supply of water for all the inhabitants. Bathrooms featured an advanced drainage system. Wastewater flowed out to drains located under the streets and then was carried to sewage pits beyond the city walls. A system of chutes took household trash from houses to street-level garbage bins. Only a well-organized government could have maintained such carefully structured cities. As in Egypt and Mesopotamia, Harappan rulers based their power on a belief in divine assistance. Religion and political power were closely linked, as is indicated by the combination of the royal palace and the holy temple in the citadel, or fortress, at Harappa. The Harappan economy was based on farming. The Indus River flooded every year, providing rich soil to grow wheat, barley, and peas. The Indus Valley civilization also carried on trade as far away as Mesopotamia. Sumerian textiles and food were traded for Indus Valley copper, lumber, precious stones, cotton, and various luxury goods. Migration and Interaction (p.44) Why did India s culture change after 1500 b.c.? How the Indus Valley civilization ended continues to be a mystery. Archaeologists have found signs of gradual decay in Indus Valley cities beginning around 1800 b.c. Floods, an earthquake, changes in climate, environmental changes from human settlements, and a change in the course of the Indus River weakened the once-flourishing civilization in the Indus River valley. Although theories about the end of the Indus Valley civilization abound, all agree that about 1500 b.c. there was a major shift in India s culture. Many historians explain this shift as the result of a foreign migration.

10 Around 2000 b.c., a group of Indo-European-speaking nomadic peoples began to move out of the steppes of central Asia. Indo-Europeans spoke similar languages. Some migrated west to Europe. Others moved south to Iran and later to the Indus Valley. One group, known as the Aryans, moved south across the Hindu Kush mountain range into the plains of northern India. Historians know little about the origins and early culture of the Aryans. The Aryans lived in tribal groups and had a strong warrior tradition. As they settled in northern India, the nomads came into contact with the Indus Valley civilization. From around 1500 b.c. to 1000 b.c., the Aryan peoples gradually advanced eastward from the Indus Valley, across the fertile plain of the Ganges, and later southward into the Deccan Plateau. Eventually they extended their political control throughout India. The ongoing migrations and interaction between the Aryans and the Dravidians descendants of the Indus Valley people resulted in a new culture. Connections to TODAY Rivers in South Asia The Indus and Ganges Rivers remain centers of population, commerce, and industry in the modern nations of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. The city of Kolkata (Calcutta) sits along a channel of the Ganges and supports a population of more than 15 million people. Its port provides an important site for the transfer of goods between land, river, and sea. The Ganges River also carries religious significance. It is the holiest river for Hindus. Every year, in January and February, millions of Hindu pilgrims bathe at sacred places along the Ganges, seeking to cleanse themselves of sin. In the process of settling in India, the Aryans gave up their nomadic lifestyle for farming. The introduction of iron probably from Southwest Asia, where it had first been used by the Hittites played a role in this change. The creation of the iron plow, along with the use of irrigation, made it possible for farmers to clear the dense jungle growth along the Ganges River and turn it into rich farmland. The basic crops in the north were wheat, barley, and millet. Rice was most common in the fertile river valleys. In the south, grain and vegetables supplemented cotton and spices such as pepper, ginger, and cinnamon. Although there is evidence of writing in the Indus Valley, no one yet been able to translate those symbols. Like most nomadic peoples, early Aryans had no written language. Around 1000 b.c., they started writing in Sanskrit, an Indo-European language. Having a written language enabled them to record the legends and religious rituals that had been passed down orally from earlier generations.

11 These early writings, the Vedas, reveal that between 1500 b.c. and 400 b.c., India was a world of many small kingdoms. Various leaders, known as rajas (princes), carved out small states. These kingdoms were often at war with one another as alliances shifted between them. Not until the fourth century b.c. did a leader establish a large Indian state. Life in ancient India (p.35) Life in ancient India centered on the family, the most basic unit in society. The ideal was an extended family that had three generations grandparents, parents, and children living under the same roof. The family was basically patriarchal, because in most of India the oldest male held legal authority over the entire family unit. The superiority of males in ancient Indian society was evident in a number of ways. Only males could inherit property, except in cases where there were no sons. Women could not serve as priests, and generally only males were educated. In upper-class families, young men began their education with a guru, or teacher, and then went on to study in one of the major cities. These young men were not supposed to marry until they completed 12 years of study. Although divorce was usually not allowed, husbands could take a second wife if the first was unable to bear children. Children were an important product of marriage and were expected to take care of their parents as they grew older. Marriage, arranged by the parents, was common for young girls. Parents supported each daughter until marriage and then paid a dowry to the family of the man she married. Perhaps the most vivid symbol of men s dominance was the ritual of suttee (suh TEE). In ancient India, the dead were placed on heaps of material called pyres, which were then set on fire. Suttee required a wife to throw herself on her dead husband s funeral pyre. A Greek visitor reported that those women who refused to burn themselves were held in disgrace. Early Civilizations in Mesoamerica (p.41) What characterized the first Mesoamerican civilizations? Not until the late 1800s did archaeologists begin excavating ancient ruins found in Mesoamerica a name used for areas of Mexico and Central America where ancient empires flourished. Detailed excavations revealed that the Maya once lived in this region. Later excavations told of an older society, the Olmec. Archaeologists first discovered the Olmec society in the 1940s. They called these people the Olmec, or rubber people, because of the rubber trees that grew in the area where they lived. The Olmec, the first known civilization in Mesoamerica, appeared around 1200 b.c. They farmed along riverbanks in the hot, swampy lowlands along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico south of

12 Veracruz. They traded with other peoples of Mesoamerica for jade and obsidian to make their tools, jewelry, and monuments. Around 400 b.c.., for reasons not yet fully understood, the Olmec civilization declined and eventually collapsed. However, some aspects of their tradition influenced later Mesoamerican societies. The Olmec played a ceremonial game on a stone ball court, a ritual that the Maya people would later practice. The Maya also continued the Olmec fascination with a jaguarlike god and adopted the Olmec calendar and numerical system. An elite class of nobles and priests ruled over a population composed chiefly of farmers and artisans. Like the Olmec, the Zapotec devised a written language that has not been deciphered. The first major city in Mesoamerica was Teotihuacán (tay oh tee wuh kahn), or Place of the Gods. This city was the capital of an early kingdom that arose around 250 b.c. and collapsed around a.d Located about 30 miles (48 km) northeast of Mexico City in a fertile valley, Teotihuacán occupied an area of 8 square miles (21 sq. km). It had as many as 200,000 inhabitants at its height. Along its main thoroughfare, known as the Avenue of the Dead, were temples and palaces. All of them, however, were dominated by a massive Pyramid of the Sun. This monument rose in four tiers to a height of more than 200 feet (60 m). Most of the people of Teotihuacán were farmers. Fertile soil made their valley one of the richest farming areas in Mesoamerica. Teotihuacán was also a busy center for trade. In scores of workshops throughout the city, skilled artisans made tools, weapons, pottery, and jewelry. Especially famous were their obsidian tools. Obsidian, a volcanic glass, was prized in Mesoamerica. It was used in tools, as mirrors, and in the razor-sharp knives that were used in human and animal sacrifices. Archaeologists estimate that there were 400 obsidian workshops in the city. The goods made in Teotihuacán were shipped to Central America, Mexico, and southwestern North America. In return, the city s inhabitants received luxury items and the raw materials used in their crafts, such as shells and bird feathers. Sometime during the eighth century, for reasons yet unknown, the city s power declined. Eventually the ruling class left the city and around a.d. 800, the city was destroyed and abandoned. Early Civilizations in South America (p.43) Who inhabited early South America? As in Mesoamerica, great civilizations flourished in early South America. The inhabitants of the city of Caral, and later the people of the Chavin culture, lived there before the Inca gained power in South America.

13 Complex societies first emerged in the coastal regions of modern-day Peru and Ecuador. In the Supe River valley of Peru, Caral is the oldest major city in the Americas. Appearing around 2500 b.c., it is believed to be 1,000 years older than the cities previously known in the Western Hemisphere. The city s stone buildings were used for official business, as apartment buildings, and as grand residences. The inhabitants of Caral also developed a sophisticated system of irrigation. They grew squash, beans, and tomatoes. Caral was abandoned between 2000 b.c. and 1500 b.c. For unknown reasons, the Chavin culture declined around 200 b.c. Akkadian Empire (p. 48) What were the contributions of Sargon and the Akkadians? To the north of the Sumerian city-states were the Akkadians (uh KAY dee uhnz). They spoke a Semitic language. Around 2340 b.c., Sargon, leader of the Akkadians, overran the Sumerian city-states and set up the first empire in world history. An empire is a large political unit or state, usually under a single leader, that controls many peoples or territories. Empires are often easy to create, but they can be difficult to maintain. The rise and fall of empires is an important part of history. In his new empire, Sargon used the former rulers of the conquered city-states as his governors. His power was based on the military, namely his army of 5,400 men. Sargon s empire included all of Mesopotamia as well as lands westward to the Mediterranean. Sargon was later remembered in chronicles in ancient Mesopotamia as a king who had no rival or equal, spread his splendor over all the lands, and crossed the sea in the east. One of Sargon s successors, his grandson Naram-Sin, who ruled from 2260 b.c. to 2223 b.c., continued the greatness of the Akkadian empire. Like his grandfather, Naram-Sin waged numerous military campaigns. His successes led him to boast that he was King of the Four Corners of the Universe, and he declared himself a god. The Akkadian empire, however, did not last. Attacks from neighbors caused the Akkadian empire to fall by 2150 b.c. Babylonian Empire (p. 49) What was the significance of Hammurabi s codification of laws? The end of the Akkadian empire brought a return to independent city-states in Mesopotamia. Finally, after a long period of warfare among the city-states, a new empire arose. Hammurabi s Rule In 1792 b.c. Hammurabi (ha muh RAH bee), a king from Babylon, which was a city-state south of Akkad, came to power. Hammurabi had a well-disciplined army of foot soldiers who carried axes, spears, and copper or bronze daggers. He learned to divide his opponents and

14 subdue them one by one. Using such methods, he gained control of Sumer and Akkad, thus creating a new Mesopotamian kingdom. After his conquests, Hammurabi called himself the sun of Babylon,... the king who caused the four quarters of the world to render obedience. He established his capital at Babylon. After his death in 1750 b.c., however, a series of weak kings were unable to keep the empire united, and it finally fell to new invaders. The Code of Hammurabi For centuries in Mesopotamia, laws had regulated people s relationships with one another. Hammurabi s collection of laws (282) provides great insight into social conditions there. The Code of Hammurabi was based on a system of strict justice. Penalties for criminal offenses were severe, and they varied according to the social class of the victim. A crime against a noble by a commoner was punished more severely than the same offense against a member of the lower class. Moreover, the principle of retaliation (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth) was a fundamental part of this system of justice. Hammurabi s code took seriously the duties of public officials. Officials who failed to solve crimes had to make personal restitution to the victims or their families. Judges could be penalized for ruling incorrectly on a case. The law code also included what we would call consumer-protection laws. Builders were held responsible for the buildings they constructed. If a house collapsed and caused the owner to die, the builder was put to death. The largest category of laws in the Code of Hammurabi focused on marriage and the family. Parents arranged marriages for their children. After marriage, the two parties signed a marriage contract, which made the marriage legal. Mesopotamian society was patriarchal; that is, men dominated the society. Hammurabi s code shows that women had far fewer rights in marriage than men had. A woman s place was definitely in the home. A husband could divorce his wife if she failed to fulfill her duties, was unable to bear children, or tried to leave home to engage in business. Even harsher, a wife who neglected her home or humiliated her husband could be drowned. Fathers ruled their children as well. Obedience was expected: If a son strike his father, his hands shall be hewn off. If a son committed a serious enough offense, his father could disinherit him. Hammurabi s laws clearly covered almost every aspect of people s lives.

15 The New Kingdom collapsed in 1070 b.c. (done with Old and Middle) (p. 51) For the next thousand years, Egypt was dominated periodically by Libyans, Nubians, Persians, and, finally, Macedonians after the conquest of Alexander the Great. In the first century b.c., the pharaoh Cleopatra VII tried to reestablish Egypt s independence. Her involvement with Rome led to her defeat and suicide, and Egypt became a province in Rome s empire. The Kingdom of Kush (p. 53) How did Kush emerge as a strong early African civilization? South of Egypt is an area known as Nubia. By 2000 b.c., a busy trade had arisen between Egypt and Nubia. Egyptian merchants traveled to Nubia to obtain ivory, ebony wood, frankincense (a fragrant tree resin), and leopard skins. Nubia was subject to Egyptian control for many centuries. However, the collapse of the New Kingdom enabled it to free itself and become the independent state of Kush around 1000 b.c. In 750 b.c., Kush conquered Egypt. In 663 b.c., however, the Kushites, still using bronze and stone weapons, were overwhelmed by the Assyrians, who were armed with iron spears and swords. The Kushites, driven out of Egypt, returned to their original lands in the upper Nile valley. The economy of Kush was based at first on farming; millet and other grain crops were grown along the banks of the river. Kush soon emerged, however, as one of the major trading states in the region with its center at the city of Meroë. Well-located at the point where a newly opened land route across the desert to the north crossed the Nile River, Meroë was also blessed with a large supply of iron ore. Having learned iron smelting from the Assyrians, the Kushites made iron weapons and tools that were sent abroad. For the next several hundred years, Kush was a major trading empire that had links to other states throughout the region. In addition to its own quality iron products, Kush provided goods from Central and East Africa for the Roman Empire as well as Arabia and India. The major exports of Kush were ivory, gold, ebony, and slaves; in return, the Kushites received luxury goods, including jewelry and silver lamps from India and Arabia. Not much is known about Kushite society. It seems likely that it was mostly urban. At first, state authorities probably controlled foreign trade, but the presence of extensive luxury goods in the numerous private tombs in the area indicates that at one time material prosperity was relatively widespread. This suggests that a fairly large merchant class carried on trading activities. Indeed, the merchants of Meroë built large houses with central courtyards. Like the Romans, they also built public baths. Kushite prosperity was also evident in the luxurious palaces of the Kushite

16 kings. Like the Egyptian pharaohs, these kings were buried in pyramids, although theirs were considerably smaller than those of their Egyptian models. The state of Kush flourished from about 250 b.c. to about a.d. 150 and then began to decline, possibly because of the rise of a new power in the region. Known as Axum, it was located in the highlands of modern-day Ethiopia. Axum owed its prosperity to its location along the Red Sea, on the trade route between India and the Mediterranean Sea. The Assyrian Empire (p. 55) What characterized the empire of the Assyrians? The first of the new empires was formed in Assyria, located on the upper Tigris River. The Assyrians were a Semitic-speaking people who exploited the use of iron weapons to establish an empire by 700 b.c. The Assyrian Empire included Mesopotamia, parts of the Plateau of Iran, sections of Asia Minor, Syria, Israel, and Egypt down to Thebes. In less than 100 years, however, internal strife and resentment of Assyrian rule began to tear the Assyrian Empire apart. In 612 b.c., the empire fell to a coalition of Chaldeans and Medes (people who lived in the east). Seven years later, the rest of the empire was finally divided between the two powers. At its height, the Assyrian Empire was ruled by kings whose power was seen as absolute. Under their leadership, the Assyrian Empire became well organized. Local officials were directly responsible to the king. The Assyrians also developed an efficient system of communication to administer their empire more effectively. A network of staging posts was established throughout the empire that used relays of horses (mules or donkeys in the mountains) to carry messages. The system was so effective that a governor anywhere in the empire could send a question and receive an answer from the king within a week. The Assyrians were good at conquering others. Through many years of practice, they developed effective military leaders and fighters. They were able to enlist and deploy troops numbering in the hundreds of thousands, although most campaigns were not on such a large scale. The Assyrian army was well organized and disciplined. A force of infantrymen was its core, joined by cavalrymen and horsedrawn war chariots that were used as platforms for shooting arrows. Moreover, the Assyrians had the first large armies equipped with iron weapons. Another factor in the army s success was its ability to use different military tactics. The Assyrians could wage guerrilla warfare in the mountains and set battles on open ground, as well as lay siege to cities. They were especially known for their siege warfare. They used battering rams and siege towers to hammer at the city s walls. Then they would tunnel under them, making them collapse.

17 The Assyrians used terror as an instrument of warfare. They regularly laid waste to the land in which they were fighting. They smashed dams; looted and destroyed towns; set crops on fire; and cut down trees, particularly fruit trees. The Assyrians were also known for committing atrocities on their captives. The culture of the Assyrian Empire was a mixture. The Assyrians took over much of Mesopotamian civilization. They saw themselves as guardians of Sumerian and Babylonian culture. One of the last Assyrian kings, Ashurbanipal, established one of the world s first libraries at Nineveh. This library has provided abundant information concerning ancient Southwest Asian civilizations. The Persian Empire (p. 56) What factors contributed to the success and ultimate fall of the Persian Empire? After the collapse of the Assyrian Empire, the Chaldean king Nebuchadne zzar (neh byuh kuhd NEH zuhr) II made Babylonia the leading state in western Asia. He rebuilt Babylon as the center of his empire and gave it a reputation as one of the great cities of the ancient world. The city was most famous for its Hanging Gardens, known as one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. However, the splendor of Chaldean Babylonia proved to be short-lived. Babylon fell to the Persians in 539 b.c. The Rise of the Persian Empire The Persians were Indo-Europeans who lived in what is today southwestern Iran. Primarily nomadic, the Persians were eventually unified by one family. One member of this family, Cyrus, created a powerful Persian state that stretched from Asia Minor to India. Cyrus ruled from 559 b.c. to 530 b.c. In 539 b.c. he captured Babylon. His treatment of Babylonia showed remarkable restraint and wisdom. He also allowed the Jews who had been held there as captives to return to Israel. The people of his time called Cyrus the Great. He demonstrated wisdom and compassion in the conquest and organization of his empire. He won approval by installing not only Persians but also native peoples as government officials in their own states. Unlike the Assyrian rulers, Cyrus had a reputation for mercy. Medes, Babylonians, and Jews all accepted him as their ruler. Cyrus had a genuine respect for other civilizations. For example, he used Assyrian, Babylonian, and Egyptian designs for building his palaces. Cyrus s successors sought to extend the territory of the Persian Empire. His son Cambyses (kam BY seez) successfully invaded Egypt. Then Darius (duh RY uhs), who ruled from 521 b.c. to 486 b.c., added a new Persian province in western India that extended to the Indus River. He

18 then conquered Thrace in Europe, creating the world s largest empire to that time. Contact with Greece led Darius to invade the Greek mainland. Darius strengthened the Persian government. He divided the empire into 20 provinces, called satrapies (SAY truh pees). A governor, or satrap, literally a protector of the kingdom, ruled each province. Each satrap collected taxes, provided justice, and recruited soldiers. An efficient communication system sustained the Persian Empire. Officials easily traveled through the empire on well-maintained roads. The Royal Road stretched from Lydia in Asia Minor to Susa, the empire s chief capital. Like the Assyrians, the Persians set up way stations that provided food and shelter, as well as fresh horses, for the king s messengers. In this vast administrative system, the Persian king the Great King held an exalted position. All subjects were the king s servants, and he held the power of life and death over them. Much of the empire s power depended on the military. By the time of Darius, Persian kings had created a standing army of professional soldiers from all parts of the empire. At its core were a cavalry force of 10,000 and an elite infantry force of 10,000. They were known as the Immortals because whenever a member was killed, he was immediately replaced. The Fall of the Persian Empire(p. 58) After Darius, the Persian kings became isolated at their courts, surrounded by luxuries. As the kings increased taxes, loyalty to the empire declined. Struggles over the throne weakened the monarchy (rule by a king or queen). Persian kings were polygamous (having many wives) and had many children. Artaxerxes II, for example, who ruled in the fourth century b.c., had 115 sons. Of course, the sons had little real power. However, that made them even more willing to engage in plots to gain the throne. Of the nine rulers after Darius, six were murdered as a result of court intrigue. Struggles for the throne weakened the empire and led to its conquest by the Greek ruler Alexander the Great during the 330s b.c.