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2 . IntheBeginning Mardukcreatedwildanimals,theliving creaturesoftheopencountry. HecreatedandputinplaceTigrisand Euphratesrivers, Hepronouncedtheirnameswithfavor. Marduk, Creator of the World Of Tigris and Euphrates AncientIraqisthegiftoftworivers.TheEuphratesrisesonthe AnatolianplateauinTurkey,flowssouthwestintoSyriaandthen turns southeast across Iraq, emptying into the Gulf. Its broad, shallowchannelmakesitanidealsourceforirrigationwater,and inmanystretchestheeuphratesiseasilynavigable.astheriver movesacrossthesouthernalluvialplainsandapproachesthegulf, itmergeswiththetigris,amidstanetworkofsmallerrivers,lakes, andmarshes. ToaBabylonianpoet,theEuphratesseemedamighty canal,divinelymade: ORiver,creatorofallthings, Whenthegreatgodsdugyourbed, Theysetwell-beingalongyourbanks. TheTigris,thoughittoorisesontheAnatolianplateau,passes through more rugged terrain, at one point disappearing into a

3 Indus Syr Darya Ara l Sea C a s p CAUCASUS B l a c k S e a ILLYRIA Edessa Rome Til Barsip Istanbul SCYTHIA Amu Darya i a n S e a Carthage MACEDON (Constantinople) Troy LYDIA HATTI Kanesh ARMENIA Pergamon Merv Tigris Lake Van ARZAWA ANATOLIA Tunnel GREECE Athens Magnesia Çatal Hüyük TURKEY URARTU Ae ge an TAURUS Aleppo Carchemish Sea CRETE Mosul CILICIA BACTRIA Antioch MITANNI PARTHIA CYPRUS Ebla MEDIA ALASHIYA Arwad Qatna Ecbatana Kadesh SYRIA Herat Behistun AFGHANISTAN Beirut Damascus IRAQ LEBANON Sidon SYRIAN Baghdad PALESTINE IRAN DESERT ISRAEL BABYLONIA ELAM JORDAN Lachish JUDAH MOAB Apamea EDOM Palmyra Tigris S e a M e d i t e r r a n e a n Euphrates LIBYA Amarna Teima G u l f EGYPT Thebes Medina Tyre Pasargadae Persepolis PAKISTAN Megiddo SEE MAP 2 PERSIA Jerusalem BAHREIN QATAR Mecca ARABIA OMAN Nile O c e a n R e d S e a i a n I n d YEMEN km

4 N inthebeginning SYRIA Halaf Shubat-Enlil TURKEY Dur-Sharrukin Nineveh S I N J A R Tell al-rimah Hassuna Tepe Gawra Arpachiyah Mosul Arbela Nimrud Hatra Ekallatum Umm Dabaghiyah Assur Kar-Tukulti- Ninurta Arrapha Nuzi Dura Europas Mari J E Z I R A Khabur A S S Y R I A Upper Zab Lower Zab Lake Urmia Z A G R O S M O Euphrates H A M A D Tigris Samarra Tell Razuk IRAQ SAUDI ARABIA Baghdad Dur-Kurigalzu Sippar Diyala Eshnunna Agade? Seleucia Ctesiphon A K K A D Babylon Jemdet Nasr Kish Hillah Borsippa Nippur Kufah Hira Isin Kesh? Adab Shuruppak S U M E R Umma Girsu Lagash Uruk Larsa Ubaid Gharraf Canal Ur Eridu IRAN E L A M Shatt al-arab U N T Karkeh S E A L A N D A I S Basra C H A R A X Susa Karun km KUWAIT Gulf Map.(left) FromRometotheIndus(afterCollon995) Map2.(above) AncientIraq(afterLloyd978)

5 chapter1 naturaltunnel.asumerianpoetmythologizedthevolcanicorigin ofthetigrisheadlandsasanepicbattlebetweenahero-godanda personified, erupting volcano that gashed the earth s body... bathedtheskyinblood...andtilltodayblackcindersareinthe fields. 2 Bothriversfloodwhenthesnowsmeltinthehighlands, butthetigrisoftendoessoinviolent,destructiveonslaughtsof water,swelledbyitsthreemaintributaries theupperandlower ZabandtheDiyala pouringdownfromdeepgorgesinthezagrosmountains.bycontrast,thetwoprincipaltributariesofthe Euphrates thekhaburandbalikh,whichjoinitinnortheastern Syria enclose a swath of fine agricultural land known as the Jezira,whoseproductivityisaugmentedbysuffcientannualrainfallforcrops. TheriversofIraqhavedetermineditshistoryinthreecrucial ways.theeuphrateswasanimportantrouteofcommunication withsyria,centralturkey,andthemediterranean;thetigrisand itstributariesaffordedlinkswitheasternturkeyandtheiranian plateau.aboveall,bothriversmadepossiblehumanlifeonthe plains, annually renewing the soil with flood-borne silts and bringing the water that farmers needed to till their fields and herdsmentosustaintheirflocks. DuringthePlioceneandearlyPleistoceneepochs,theearth s greattectonicplatesbeganshapingthemaingeographicalfeatures ofiraq.asthearabianandafricanplatesmovedslowlynorthward,theyencounteredthemoreintransigentiranianandturkishplatesandwereforcedtogrindbeneaththem,resultinginthe uplift of the Zagros on Iraq s eastern border and the Anatolian ranges and plateau on its northern border. Where the Arabian plate thrust under the Iranian plate, subduction pressures also formedthetroughofthegulfandthealluvialplainsofiraq sriver systems.ongoingtectonicactivityaccountsforthemiddleeast s frequentearthquakesandnumerousvolcanoes. Over the eons, Iraq s major hydrological and environmental changeshavebeenbroughtaboutprimarilybyworldwidecooling andwarmingtrends,whichhavecausedthewatersofthegulfto fall and rise, respectively. At the height of the last Ice Age, the GulfwasaplainthroughwhichtheancestralTigrisandEuphrates meandered.astheglaciersmelted,thegulfreachedapproximately

6 inthebeginning 5 itscurrentlevel,withtemperaturefluctuationsoverthemillennia causingrepeatedadvancesandretreatsofthecoastline.studiesof pollenpreservedinthesedimentsofancientlakeshaveshedconsiderable light on the region s climate and vegetation, from the lastglaciationtoearlyhistoricaltimes.millenniaofdrycoldseem tohavegivenwaytoawarmer,moisterperiodabouttenthousand yearsago,whichinturnendedinreneweddesiccation,producing thedesertandsteppewerecognizeassalientfeaturesofiraq spresentlandscape.grazing,agriculture,andthedeforestationofthe Zagroswoodlandshaveaffectedtheregion secosystemsaswell. Today,asinhistoricalantiquity,forbiddingdesertsstretchto thewestoftheplainsofiraqforhundredsofkilometers.tothe east and north, the foothills ascend swiftly to mountains with peaks sharp-tippedasaspearpoint, asanassyrianwriterputit. 5 TothesouthistheGulf.Smallwonder,then,thatthepeopleof ancient Iraq thought that the alluvial plains were the center of theinhabitedworld,ringedbydeserts,mountains,andseas.for them,allthatlaybeyondwasforeignandstrange,thesourceof exoticmaterialsandstrangebeasts,theabodeofbrutishfolk.the farthest reaches the plains dwellers knew were the Upper and LowerSeas, themediterraneanandthegulf. 6 Nooneknowswhattheearliestnamesfortheregionsignify. KengirorSumer(biblicalShinar)referredtothesouthernhalfof thealluvialplains,whilethenorthernhalfwascalledwari,later Akkad.Afterabout700b.c.e.,SumerandAkkadtogetherconstitutedwhatcametobeknownasBabylonia.Athousandyears later,thesouthernmarsheswerecalledthesealand,laterchaldea. TheregionnorthofBaghdad,alongtheTigris,wasknownasAssyria. The word Subir was sometimes used to refer to northern Mesopotamiaasawhole. 7 ThemodernnameIraqwasfirstregularlyusedaftertheMuslimconquestof67.ThoughitappearstobeanArabicword,its meaningandetymologyareobscure.thevariousproposalsbymedievalarabgeographersshowonlythattheyweremakingthem up.oneofthemostwidelyacceptedexplanationsisthatitmeans arablelandalongamajorriver, vaguelycorrespondingtoenglish alluvium, butthismayhavebeenreasonedbackwardsfrom therealityofiraqitself. 8

7 6 chapter1 TheancientGreektermMesopotamia,nowgenerallyunderstoodtomean LandBetweenRivers, hasalsobeenusedtorefer to Iraq, especially by European scholars and twentieth-century colonialadministrators.mesopotamiaoriginallydenotedtheland enclosedbythebigbendofthemiddleeuphratesriver,eastof modernaleppoinsyria,butitsooncametomeantheexpanseof plainsanduplandsbetweenthetigrisandeuphrates,fromthe GulftotheAnatolianplateau. 9 Manywriterstodayusetheterm MesopotamiawhendiscussingtheregionbeforetheMuslimconquest,andIraqthereafter.Althoughthismaybeaconvenienthistorical distinction, others prefer not to separate the pre-islamic andislamicpastofiraq.inthisbook,weusemesopotamiaand Iraqinterchangeably. To visitors from parts of the earth with more temperate climates and more varied scenery, the hot, featureless plains of southerniraqmayseemaplaceinhospitabletothedevelopment ofcivilization.noraretheresplendidruinstoadmireorreflect on,suchasmightevokeagloriouspast.infact,theonlyhintson thelandscapeattestingtotheremoteantiquityofhumanhabitationaremoundscoveredwithpotsherds,brokenbricks,andother debris,sometimeslyingamongstfaintoutlinesofwallsanddwellings,allthatremainofoncebustlingcitiesandtowns,hometoa vibrantandlong-livedliterateculture.thisearlyvictoriantraveler sexperiencestillringstrue: Hehasleftthelandwherenatureisstilllovely,where,inhis mind seye,hecanrebuildthetempleorthetheatre...he isnowatalosstogiveanyformtotherudeheapsupon whichheisgazing...thescenearoundisworthyofthe ruin he is contemplating; desolation meets desolation; a feelingofawesucceedstowonder;forthereisnothingto relievethemind,tolead tohope,or totellofwhat has goneby. 0 Theancientvisitorwouldhavehadaverydifferentview,largely becausethetigrisandeuphrates,likeotherrestlesswaterways,are pronetocarvingoutnewcourses,sometimesshiftingtheirriverbedsbymanykilometers.todayinsoutherniraq,theeuphrates

8 inthebeginning 7 flowsfartotheeastofitscourseinhistoricalantiquity,sothat whatwereonceriversideorcanalsidecities,towns,andvillages becamethe rudeheaps ofremotedeserts.asaresult,manyof theimportantancientcitiesinsoutherniraqwereleftunmolested anduninhabitedforthousandsofyears.unhamperedbymodern development, archaeologists have been able to investigate these sitesindepth,recoveringmostofwhatweknowaboutthehistory andcultureofancientiraq.inmorerecenttimes,theseisolated fieldsofruinshavefalleneasypreytolarge-scalelootinganddestruction.muchoftheirvastandrichhistoricalrecordisnowlost forever. In the north, where the river channels are more stable, ancientsettlementsandcitiesoftenunderliemodernones,makingthemmorediffculttoexcavate,butlessvulnerabletolooters. WereturntothesemattersintheEpilogue. Still,onemaywellask,whywascivilizationbornonthesealluvialplains,sofarinadvanceofallotherplacesintheworld? There are at once many answers and no answer to this simple question.intensivearchaeologicalresearchiniraqandinneighboringlandshasgivenusnumerousresponses,andwemaydraw theseproposalsandtheoriestogetherintoanarrativethatseems reasonableandconvincinginitsoutline,evenifspecificsremain frustratinglyelusive.atthesametime,thereisnoanswer,forwe oftendescribeeventsandchangeswithoutreallyknowinghow or why they came about, and refer to people about whom we know very little. New discoveries and reinterpretations of old onesgiveusfascinatingevidencetoworkintothestory,butultimatelyleavethereaderwishingtoknowmorethanwecansayat present. The First Villages Ofthemanywaystodescribehumanbeingsofformertimesand howtheylived,onelongpopularhasbeenwithreferencetotheir technology.wemayspeakoftheoldstoneage(paleolithic)and New Stone Age (Neolithic), implying that people mostly used stonetools,orthebronzeage,whenpeoplemostlyusedbronze weapons.orwemayfocusonreligiousbelief,referringtopagan, Christian,orpre-Islamicsocieties.Inolderbooks,onewroteof

9 8 chapter1 races:orientalandoccidentalpeoples,the greatwhiterace, the Indo-Europeans, the Semites. Since the 960s, anthropologists andarchaeologistshaveusedamoreinclusivesystemreferringto modesofsubsistence,thatis,bywhatmeanspeopleobtainedthe foodtheyneededtosurvive. Foralmostitsentirehistory,thehumanracesubsistedbyhunting game and gathering naturally occurring plants. This mode wassosuccessfulandsoundemandingasawayoflifethatitensured human survival for hundreds of thousands of years. To judge from present-day hunting cultures, hunters need exercise theirskillonlytwoorthreedaysoutofseventoprovidesuffcient meatfortheircommunity.theykillandcollectonlywhatthey needtolive,anddonotreducetheirresourcesforsportorentertainment.hunter-gathererpopulations,moreover,tendtoremain fairlystable.theyusuallyhavesmallfamilies;theirchildren,especiallygirls,maturelate;andsomegroupsevenabandoninfantsto controlpopulation. 2 About ten thousand years ago, peoples in the Middle East evolvedaradicallydifferentsubsistencepatternbasedonagricultureandthemanagementofdomesticatedanimals.somehistoriansrefertothismomentousdevelopmentasarevolution,thereby implyingsweepingchange. Butthechangewasabruptonlyin comparisonwiththemannerinwhichpeoplehadinteractedwith thenaturalworldforalltheprecedingmillennia.weseethetransitionvividlyiniraqandalso,ataboutthesametime,iniran, Turkey,Syria,Israel,andPalestine. Howandwhydiditoccur, andwhatdiditmeanforthehumanrace? ArchaeologicalworkinthefoothillsoftheZagroshasshown thatpeoplebegansettlinginsmallvillagesinareaswherecertain wildgrains,suchasbarley,andwildanimals,suchassheepand goats,occurrednaturallyandplentifully.gradually,peoplecame to realize that these resources could be managed by controlling theirreproductiontoobtainspecificdesirabletraits.thisselection process,termedthedomesticationofplantsandanimals,caused permanentgeneticandassociatedmorphologicalchangesinthe species involved. Barley, for example, was selected for preferred strains,suchasthosewithsofterhusksandlargerearsofgrain;

10 inthebeginning 9 animalswerebredforqualityofwoolormilk,orforfattinessor yieldofmeat.withinthevillageconfines,plotsweresownand animals penned, though in some seasons the animals might be herdedtobetter,moredistantpastures.althoughwemaynowbe abletodescribeinsomedetailthetransitionfromhuntingand gatheringtopastoralandvillagelife,westillcannotexplainwhy thisoccurredwhenitdid. 5 Thedomesticationofplantsandanimalsbroughtwithitsubstantial changes in social outlook, behavior, and organization. Thehunterattackedortrapped,whereasthefarmerandherdsman nurtured. The self-narrative of the hunter was aggressive anddramatic,thatofthefarmerandherdsmanreliantandprotective.formuchoftheyear,agriculturalworkwassystematic andunrelenting:preparingthesoil,sowing,watering,weeding, drivingoffpests,harvesting,threshing,andstoring.thispattern oflifebroughtwithitanethosofworkinginrhythmwiththe seasonsforfamilyandcommunity,ofsavingagainstfuturewant, andofhopefuldependenceonuncontrollableforcesandevents. Agriculturalsuccessresultedinlargerfamilies,becauseevensmall childrencouldbeusefulinfieldworkandherding.andwithearlierphysicalmaturitycamesteady,evenexponential,population growth. 6 Inresponsetoagriculturalandpastoralneeds,newtechnologies developed for producing such items as ground-stone tools, woodenimplements,baskets,andtextiles.newmaterialsalsoappeared,amongthemobsidianfromthevolcanicareasofeastern andcentralturkey.itisnotclearhowobsidian,prizedforsharp blades,reachedtheearlyfarmingvillagesofiraq,whetherbrought bytradersoracquiredthoughexpeditions,butitspresenceattests towell-established,long-distancenetworks. 7 The most important innovation was pottery. Prior to about 6500b.c.e.,containershadbeenmadeofskins,bitumen-coated baskets,gypsumorlimeplaster,andstone.theearliestceramic vesselswerelightlyfired,butthedevelopmentofmoreeffcient kilns resulted in the production of nonporous, durable wares adaptabletoawiderangeofuses. 8 Theseincludedthestorage, transport, preparation, and cooking of a variety of solids and

11 0 chapter1 liquids,fromgrainandcheesetobeer.thediscoveryoffermentationcreatedbeveragesthatalteredmoodandbehavior;drinking thus acquired social and ritual functions, as Sumerian drinking songscelebrate: WhenImakemywayaroundaroundofbeer, WhenIfeelgrand,whenIfeelgrand, Drinkingbeerinamerrymood, Imbibingfruitofthefieldinalight-heartedstate, Withajoyfulheartandahappyinside... 9 Becausefiredclayisanearlyindestructiblematerial,theshapes anddecorationsofpotteryvesselsusuallyaffordthebestevidence we have for the creativity and aesthetic sensibilities of ancient peoples.iniraq,aselsewhere,majorpotterytypesarefrequently namedafterthesitesatwhichtheywerefirstdiscovered,orwhich seemtohavebeencentersofproduction.thehassunawareof themid-seventhmillenniumfromnortherniraqtendstobedecoratedwithherringboneandotherpatternsincisedwithapointed tool.thesamarraandhalafwaresthatfollowed,fromnorthern andcentraliraq,aremorefinelymade,withpaintedpatternson abuffground.theinteriorsofsamarrabowlsoftenfeaturestylizedhornedanimalscirclinground,drawnindarkbrownwith verveandassurance.halafpotteryofthemid-sixthmillenniumis thefirstpolychromewareknown,characterizedbysophisticated geometricdesignsinred,black,andwhite,possiblyinspiredby textiles.vesselssuchasthebowlpicturedhere(figure)werelikely madebyspecializedpottersbasedincertainvillages,whereassimplerpotswereprobablymadelocally. 20 Soitwas,inthisperiodofchangetenthousandyearsago,in thefoothillsofiraq,thatsmallvillagessprangup,theirmud-brick housesconsistingofafewroomsandanopenarea,pensforanimalsandstoragebinsforfoods,thesettlementssurroundedbyan agriculturalhinterlandextendingperhapsseveralhours walk. 2 So forcefulwasthisnewtrajectoryofhumanlifethatinafewplaces beyondiraq,suchasçatalhüyükincentralturkey,good-sized townsappeared,withcomparativelylargepopulationsandelaborately embellished structures, apparently serving some religious

12 inthebeginning Figure. Halaf ware bowl from Arpachiyah, diameter cm, Iraq Museum,Baghdad.(Strommenger962:pl.II)For most periods of ancient Iraq, pottery provides the chronological framework essential for understanding the successive levels of occupation of a site. During the course of an archaeological excavation, hundreds of thousands of potsherds are collected and recorded. The smallest fragment may be as valuable as an intact vessel for enriching our knowledge of techniques, artistic developments, and interconnections. When the Iraq Museum storerooms were ransacked in April 2003, the excavated pottery and other artifacts awaiting study and final publication were thrown into disorder or stolen. purpose. 22 But this was exceptional. Most villages comprised a few dozen houses, all of the same size and plan, suggesting an egalitariansociety,withcommunalaswellasindividualstorage facilities.perhapsresourcesoffieldsandflockswerealsomanaged communally.

13 2 chapter1 From the Foothills to the Plains A second important transition, several thousand years after the development of agriculture, was the movement of farmers and stockbreedersdownfromthefoothillsontotheplainsofiraq.no oneknowspreciselywhenthisoccurred,fortheearliestlowland settlementsmaybeburieddeepinthemodernalluviumandthus archaeologicallyinaccessible.whymovetotheplains?onetheory is population pressure, but no evidence has been produced fromthefoothillstosuggestthatthepopulationhadbecometoo large to be sustained there. The important point is that once humanbeingshadmasteredagriculturalandpastoralskills,they couldliveinareaswherethewildancestorsofthedomesticated plantsandanimalstheyhadcometodependondidnotnaturally occur. In bringing the new species of plants and animals with them,humanscausedpermanentchangesintheecologyofthe plains. 2 InIraq,thelowlandspresentedchallengesthatwerenoteasily met.thedearthofrainfallinthesouthrequiredirrigationforthe cultivationofcerealcrops.inprinciple,irrigationneedonlybea matterofdiggingaditchtobringwatertoafield.inpractice,irrigationinvolvedcommunityparticipationintheconstructionand maintenanceofanetworkofditches,aswellasdecisionsabout whowastoreceivehowmuchwater,where,andwhen.thewater situationinsoutherniraqwasfurthercomplicatedbythefactthat theriversfloodintheearlyspring,atsowingtime,andreachtheir lowpointinthehotseason,atgrowingtime,whenwaterismost needed.despitethesechallenges,peoplesettledfirstinsmallvillagesdispersedacrossthealluvialplains,especiallyinthesouth, theninincreasingnumbersalongnaturalwatercourses,allowing us to trace those now vanished or shifted thanks to patterns of habitation.furthermore,wecanseeintherelativesizesofthevillagesanemerginghierarchyamongthem. 2 ThesettlementoffarmersonthealluvialplainsofIraqwasthus a success, the first stage in a story of human activity there that continuestothepresentday.weneednotimagine,ofcourse,that theplainslayemptybeforepeoplebegantotillthesoil.huntergatherershadlongpursuedtheabundantgame,suchasgazelle,

14 inthebeginning andthemarshcreatures,suchasturtles,birds,andfish,thatthis hospitablesumerianfishermaninvitesintohistraps: Letyouracquaintancescome, Letthoseprecioustoyoucome, Letyourfatherandgrandfathercome,... Letyourwifeandchildrencome,... Letthegrouparoundyourdoorwaycome, Donotleaveanyonearoundyouout,notasingleone! 25 Butwiththeadventofagricultureandstockbreeding,theland waschangedforever.thesetwomodescoexistedwell,andmight becarriedonbymembersofthesamefamily.flocksofsheepand goatsgrazedwidelyonthegrassyplainsandonthefirstspringtimeshootsofthegraincrops,increasingthealreadyhighyields of the fields by causing the grain to put out a thicker second growthandbyfertilizingthesoil. 26 Insummer,whenthegrass witheredintheheat,theanimalsmightbemovedtohigherpastures or fed on stored grain and the leftovers from milling and brewing.tojudgefromlaterperiods,forwhichwrittensources are available, the main products of the time were wool, wheat, and barley. The diet was supplemented by the fruit of the date palm,plentifulriverfish,sheepandgoats,andwildgame. Fromabout5900to00b.c.e.,thislowlandpeasantculture, termedbyarchaeologiststheubaid,diffusedthroughoutiraqand farbeyond,intotheanatolianplateauandthesteppesofnorthernsyria. 27 Differencesinwaterresourcesledtovariationsinhow northernandsoutherniraqdeveloped.inthenorth,whereagriculturecouldbesustainedbyrainfallandwells,therewaslessintensive fieldwork than in the irrigated south, and the potential existedforagreaterareaundercultivation.butifthesouthhad smallerplots,thoseirrigatedfieldshadmuchhigherproductivity perhectare.andbecausethepopulationwasconcentratedinthe south,extensiveareasofthenorthmaynothavebeencultivated at all, even during later periods. Southern settlements followed thenaturalwatercoursesneededforirrigationandtransportation; northernvillagestendedtobespreadacrossthelandscape,whereverwellscouldbedug. 28

15 chapter1 Material culture, south and north, befitted a peasant way of life:simpletools,practicalvessels.ingeneral,ubaidceramicsare modestlydecorated,often,inthelaterphases,withdarkpainted patternsrapidlyapplied,showingnoneoftheglossypolychromy of Halaf ware (figure ). We see the spread of Ubaid culture throughfindingitspottery,includingsomelocallymadeimitations,fromthemediterraneantooman. 29 What these peoples called themselves, what languages they spoke,whatsocialinstitutions,spirituallife,andtraditionsthey had, we know not. The platforms, niched façades, and interior fittingsofsomeubaidshrinesbecamestandardelementsoflater temples,whichsuggestsacertainmeasureofcontinuity.because bothshrinesandhousesoftenhadatripartiteplan(acentralroom flankedbyrowsofrooms),andbecausetheplasticartsthathave comedowntousareprimarilyexaggeratedrepresentationsofthe femalebody,wesurmisethatubaidreligiousbeliefandpractice focusedontheforcesmostimportanttotheirwayoflife,especiallyfertility,procreation,andthesafetyofthehomehearth. 0 FouraspectsoftheUbaidcultureimpressthemodernobserver: itslongevityof,600years,ormore,indicatingthataviableway of life had been successfully transplanted to the alluvial plains ofiraqandbeyond;itswideextent,comparedtolatercultures; itsoveralluniformitythroughoutiraq,notwithstandingregional phases and variations; and its striking absence of weapons and fortifications,implyingpeacefulcoexistence.peoplemighthave continuedtoliveinthismodeindefinitelyhadnotsomethingextraordinaryhappened.